2 10 23 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/06607acd9feca9ab3190f773bc28adf8.jpg f8e1a43b916afe0cd8d7c811d53bf001 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/57fff58cd8a445695b5acd0190cfa664.pdf 9b91da8d601146f838d83408228245ad Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Postwar United States Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1945 - 1970s Description An account of the resource The era following World War II brought about vast changes, not only in foreign policy, but in economics and a changing civic landscape. The liberalism of the New Deal era grew into movements towards increasing civil liberties and economic opportunities, particularly for underrepresented communities and women. Protests became more common as groups demanded equal rights and voting equality. These movements were juxtaposed with Jim Crow laws and the reemergence of the Ku Klux Klan. The Cold War pitted the United States and its allies in NATO against the Soviet Union and other communist nations, particularly China, Korea, and Vietnam. During this period campaigns were fought not only on the battleground, but in the political arena and social consciousness as well. The fall of the Nazi regime opened the door to the Iron Curtain and Soviet dominance of Eastern Europe. Through the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan the U.S. sought to halt the spread of communism further west. The defeat of Japan enabled previously occupied counties the chance to choose new leaders, many of whom sided with communism over capitalism. The United States would spend much of this period adhering to the “Domino Theory” foreign policy to contain the spread of communism. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a> Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context On May 17, 1954, after nearly two decades of legal challenges against racial segregation in public schools and higher education, the United States Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka that school segregation was unconstitutional. Their decision paved the way for desegregation of educational institutions. Prior to Brown v. Board of Education decision, legal segregation had existed under the "separate but equal" doctrine. However, the separate educational facilities and opportunities the Southern states offered to Black Americans were inferior, not equal, to those designed for white Americans. In 1956, Virginia's General Assembly adopted a policy of Massive Resistance using the law and courts to obstruct desegregation and to not comply with changes which were being made nationwide in response to Brown v. Board of Education. In 1957, in the midst of Virginia’s effort to maintain segregation in public schools, James Lindsay Almond Jr., won the gubernatorial election by pledging to uphold Massive Resistance. In September 1958, he closed schools in Charlottesville, Front Royal, and Norfolk rather than see them segregated. By January 1959, both the federal court and state supreme court declared Virginia's Massive Resistance laws unconstitutional and ordered the schools reopened. However, Prince Edward County officials defied all court orders to open on a desegregated basis, and in June 1959 the county Board of Supervisors voted to cut off revenues to the public schools. Prince Edward County was the only locality in the nation to take this step. County officials were heavily encouraged by segregationists across the state and the South to close schools and remove funding for public education. The schools in the county remained closed for the next five years. While white students attended the new private school, Prince Edward Academy, Black students were left with no educational facilities. Some local organizations provided rudimentary education at churches. Some Black students attended classes in nearby counties, or, with the aid of Quaker-affiliated American Friends Service Committee, relocated to other areas. However, many students had no form of education and most Black teachers lost their jobs. In February 1963, President John F. Kennedy spoke about Prince Edward County in a civil rights address to Congress. While attending a centennial celebration for the Emancipation Proclamation on March 18, 1963, Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy urged action in Prince Edward County, noting that "the only places on earth not to provide free public education are Communist China, North Vietnam, Sarawak, Singapore, British Honduras—and Prince Edward County, Virginia." Kennedy's administration assisted in organizing the Prince Edward Free School Association, which rented three of the closed public schools for Black students to attend during the 1963–1964 school year. On May 11, 1964, Robert F. Kennedy visited Prince Edward County to observe the Free Schools. During the 1963-1964 school year, about 1,500 students (including four white children) attended the Free schools in the county. Citation: Robert Kennedy Visited Prince Edward County Schools, May 11, 1964, photograph in Southern School News 10 (June 1964):10, Library of Virginia. Standards K.4, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2, 3.1, 3.9, VS.11, USII.8, CE.6, CE.7, CE.9, VUS.16, VUS.17, GOVT.10, GOVT.11 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Scan It: Scan the document. What words and phrases stand out to you? Why? Post Activities Political Plans: If you were President John F. Kennedy, how would you have responded to Virginia’s reactions to Brown v. Board of Education and the policy of Massive Resistance? Analyze: Why do you think Robert F. Kennedy visited Prince Edward County rather than somewhere else? Why was his visit considered an important event? Consider the time period and the situation in Prince Edward County. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Robert Kennedy, Visit to Prince Edward County Schools, May 11, 1964 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1964 African American History Government and Civics https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/7b5be075ebce94a7f0068d4b5d60929b.jpg e3e1d8d547ef64d53e87ac250ce0e15a https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/b638f8260c0dbfbd5bc8421925f71491.mp3 e3c23052dc4d704a9eb147b91dbb2aab https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/abe1b56a38bbbfaf9251c4749670c943.pdf 5f5690241bb4589e48c824a0701b94d9 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Postwar United States Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1945 - 1970s Description An account of the resource The era following World War II brought about vast changes, not only in foreign policy, but in economics and a changing civic landscape. The liberalism of the New Deal era grew into movements towards increasing civil liberties and economic opportunities, particularly for underrepresented communities and women. Protests became more common as groups demanded equal rights and voting equality. These movements were juxtaposed with Jim Crow laws and the reemergence of the Ku Klux Klan. The Cold War pitted the United States and its allies in NATO against the Soviet Union and other communist nations, particularly China, Korea, and Vietnam. During this period campaigns were fought not only on the battleground, but in the political arena and social consciousness as well. The fall of the Nazi regime opened the door to the Iron Curtain and Soviet dominance of Eastern Europe. Through the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan the U.S. sought to halt the spread of communism further west. The defeat of Japan enabled previously occupied counties the chance to choose new leaders, many of whom sided with communism over capitalism. The United States would spend much of this period adhering to the “Domino Theory” foreign policy to contain the spread of communism. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a> Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Transcription Any written text transcribed from a sound test Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Sound Clip Duration Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.) 3 minutes 10 seconds Context On May 17, 1954, after nearly two decades of legal challenges against racial segregation in public schools and higher education, the United States Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas that school segregation was unconstitutional. Their decision paved the way for desegregation of educational institutions. Prior to Brown v. Board of Education decision, legal segregation had existed under the "separate but equal" doctrine. However, the separate educational facilities and opportunities the Southern states offered to Black Americans were inferior, not equal, to those designed for white Americans. In 1956, Virginia's General Assembly adopted a policy of Massive Resistance, using the law and courts to obstruct desegregation and to not comply with changes which were being made nationwide in response to Brown v. Board of Education. In 1957, in the midst of Virginia’s effort to maintain segregation in public schools, James Lindsay Almond Jr., won the gubernatorial election by pledging to uphold Massive Resistance. In September 1958, Gov. Almond closed schools in Charlottesville, Front Royal, and Norfolk in accordance with a new state law authorizing the governor to close public schools that desegregated. On January 19, 1959, both the federal district court and the Virginia Supreme Court overturned Massive Resistance laws and ordered that schools be reopened. The following day, Gov. Almond gave a public speech that was broadcast on radio and television. In this excerpt he reiterates his belief that desegregating schools would have a negative impact on children and that court decisions promoting integration should be ignored. However, he soon declared that Massive Resistance could not continue and formed a commission to develop a new plan that would limit desegregation efforts. The closed schools reopened with small numbers of Black students, but many white Virginians across the state continued to obstruct integration into the 1960s. In 1968, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Charles C. Green et al. v. County School Board of New Kent County, Virginia that cities and counties had to demonstrate actual progress in desegregating schools. Citation: Excerpt from J. Lindsay Almond School Integration Speech, 20 January 1959 (WRVA–386), WRVA Radio Collection, Accession 38210, Library of Virginia. These recordings are for educational use and permission must be requested in writing from WRVA to reproduce any sound recordings. <a href="https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/massive-resistance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">For more information on Massive Resistance, see Encyclopedia Virginia.</a> <a href="https://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Green_Charles_C_et_al_v_County_School_Board_of_New_Kent_County_Virginia" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">For more information about Charles C. Green et al. v. County School Board of New Kent County, Virginia, see Encyclopedia Virginia.</a> Standards K.4, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2, 3.1, 3.9, VS.11, USII.8, CE.6, CE.7, CE.9, VUS.16, VUS.17, GOVT.10, GOVT.11 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Scan It: Scan the transcript of the speech. What words or phrases stand out to you? Post Activities Context Clues: Listen to the audio clip of Governor Almond’s speech. How does his presentation give clues to the anticipated reactions of listeners? How does he use his voice to try to elicit emotional responses? Be a Journalist: Assume the role of a newspaper editorialist and compose a rebuttal to Governor Almond. In your response address at least three statements made by Almond. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource J. Lindsay Almond School Integration Speech, January 20, 1959 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource January 20, 1959 African American History Government and Civics https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/8095bb482e5bb1ce4bb7c8d382e8345e.jpg eefa9cc4475b271bd75a1b28eb643163 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/858e7204022fdf5dca9c41bf32e69e6f.jpg 54102d5ca6b19341c676c3c6cfd88568 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/ad37c12b8bf0648d0103a45673da120e.pdf 1da8e9b7927531b44479850bfe96b47a Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Postwar United States Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1945 - 1970s Description An account of the resource The era following World War II brought about vast changes, not only in foreign policy, but in economics and a changing civic landscape. The liberalism of the New Deal era grew into movements towards increasing civil liberties and economic opportunities, particularly for underrepresented communities and women. Protests became more common as groups demanded equal rights and voting equality. These movements were juxtaposed with Jim Crow laws and the reemergence of the Ku Klux Klan. The Cold War pitted the United States and its allies in NATO against the Soviet Union and other communist nations, particularly China, Korea, and Vietnam. During this period campaigns were fought not only on the battleground, but in the political arena and social consciousness as well. The fall of the Nazi regime opened the door to the Iron Curtain and Soviet dominance of Eastern Europe. Through the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan the U.S. sought to halt the spread of communism further west. The defeat of Japan enabled previously occupied counties the chance to choose new leaders, many of whom sided with communism over capitalism. The United States would spend much of this period adhering to the “Domino Theory” foreign policy to contain the spread of communism. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a> Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context On May 17, 1954, after nearly two decades of legal challenges against racial segregation in public schools and higher education, the United States Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka that school segregation was unconstitutional. Their decision paved the way for desegregation of educational institutions. Prior to Brown v. Board of Education decision, legal segregation had existed under the "separate but equal" doctrine. However, the separate educational facilities and opportunities the Southern states offered to Black Americans were inferior, not equal, to those designed for white Americans. In 1956, Virginia's General Assembly adopted a policy of Massive Resistance, using the law and courts to obstruct desegregation and to not comply with changes which were being made nationwide in response to Brown v. Board of Education. Virginian's reactions to Brown v. Board of Education were varied -- while some approved the decision enthusiastically, there were also those who bitterly opposed it. In 1957, in the midst of Virginia’s effort to maintain segregation in public schools, James Lindsay Almond Jr., won the gubernatorial election by pledging to uphold Massive Resistance. In September 1958, he closed schools in Charlottesville, Front Royal, and Norfolk rather than see them segregated. By January 1959, both the federal court and state supreme court demanded that schools be reopened, and Massive Resistance laws overturned. Almond continued to appeal these rulings, however the closed schools ultimately reopened to an integrated student body. The courts ordered the admittance of small numbers of Black students into formally all-white schools around the state. The federal government put more and more pressure on the state to integrate its schools and the Departments of Health, Education, and Welfare threatened localities with loss of federal funding if they did not comply. However, Prince Edward County officials defied these court orders and on June 26, 1959, the county board of supervisors voted to cut off revenues to the public schools. Prince Edward County was the only locality in the nation to take this step. County officials were heavily encouraged by segregationists across the state and the South to close schools and remove funding for public education. The schools did not open on September 10 as scheduled. The schools in the county remained closed for the next five years. While white students attended the new private school, Prince Edward Academy, Black students were left with no educational facilities. Some local churches provided rudimentary education and some Black students attended classes in nearby counties, or, with the aid of Quaker-affiliated American Friends Service Committee, relocated to other areas. However, most Black students had no form of education and most Black teachers lost their jobs. The letter from the Baptist Ministers Conference, which represented Black ministers, asked the General Assembly to reopen the public schools. The ministers argued that school closures would have a potentially devastating impact on the young Black students across the state. They also asked that Jim Crow laws be removed as well as they were unfair to the Black community and were rendered non-enforceable by recent court rulings. Legal battles for the schools to reopen and integrate continued from 1959 to 1964. The legal cases attracted national attention. Finally, on May 25, 1964, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward that the county had violated the students’ right to an education and ordered the schools to be reopened. Citation: Letter from Baptist Ministers’ Conference of Norfolk, Portsmouth, and Vicinity, to Governor J. Lindsay Almond Jr., Richmond. January 19, 1960. Virginia, Governor (1958 – 1962), Executive Papers, 1958-1962, Accession 26230, State Government Records Collection, Library of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia. Standards VS.11, USII.8, CE.6, CE.7, CE.9, VUS.16, VUS.17, GOVT.10, GOVT.11 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Scan It: Scan the letter. What words of phrases stand out to you? Post Activities Virginia Validation: Virginia often seems to be in the spotlight for much larger, national issues. Why do you think Virginia has had such a long and varied history near the center of political and social conflict? Current Connections: Do you think all students receive an equal education today in the United States? Why or why not? Food for Thought: Imagine you were a student in Prince Edward County when the schools were closed. Would you have been able to receive an education? If so, how? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Letter from Baptist Ministers Conference to Governor James Lindsay Almond, January 19, 1960 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1960 African American History Government and Civics https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/e8edabd55a3c9f2a007ad0ff20f36f21.jpg 104a19d4c10eb0fa9d5f7d487f26fa5f https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/37c1239da1815975f75793c4ba96c291.pdf 1a2d85697c176a7f132ad97ae6b9e94e Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Postwar United States Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1945 - 1970s Description An account of the resource The era following World War II brought about vast changes, not only in foreign policy, but in economics and a changing civic landscape. The liberalism of the New Deal era grew into movements towards increasing civil liberties and economic opportunities, particularly for underrepresented communities and women. Protests became more common as groups demanded equal rights and voting equality. These movements were juxtaposed with Jim Crow laws and the reemergence of the Ku Klux Klan. The Cold War pitted the United States and its allies in NATO against the Soviet Union and other communist nations, particularly China, Korea, and Vietnam. During this period campaigns were fought not only on the battleground, but in the political arena and social consciousness as well. The fall of the Nazi regime opened the door to the Iron Curtain and Soviet dominance of Eastern Europe. Through the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan the U.S. sought to halt the spread of communism further west. The defeat of Japan enabled previously occupied counties the chance to choose new leaders, many of whom sided with communism over capitalism. The United States would spend much of this period adhering to the “Domino Theory” foreign policy to contain the spread of communism. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a> Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context On May 17, 1954, after nearly two decades of legal challenges against racial segregation in public schools and higher education, the United States Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas that school segregation was unconstitutional. Their decision paved the way for desegregation of educational institutions. Prior to Brown v. Board of Education decision, legal segregation had existed under the "separate but equal" doctrine. However, the separate educational facilities and opportunities the Southern states offered to Black Americans were inferior, not equal, to those designed for white Americans. In 1956, Virginia's General Assembly adopted a policy of Massive Resistance, using the law and courts to obstruct desegregation and to not comply with changes which were being made nationwide in response to Brown v. Board of Education. Virginians' reactions to Brown v. Board of Education were varied -- while some approved the decision enthusiastically, there were others who bitterly opposed it. In 1957, in the midst of Virginia’s effort to maintain segregation in public schools, James Lindsay Almond Jr., won the gubernatorial election by pledging to uphold Massive Resistance. In September 1958, he closed schools in Charlottesville, Front Royal, and Norfolk rather than see them segregated. By January 1959, both the federal court and state supreme court demanded that schools be reopened, and Massive Resistance laws overturned. Almond continued to appeal these rulings, however the closed schools ultimately reopened to an integrated student body. The courts ordered the admittance of small numbers of Black students into formally all-white schools around the state. The federal government put more and more pressure on the state to integrate its schools and the Departments of Health, Education, and Welfare threatened localities with loss of federal funding if they did not comply. The students at Lane High School in Charlottesville wrote a letter to Governor Almond in 1958 to reopen their school. They cited their rights to a public education as outlined in the state constitution and alluded to the ruling that state school be immediately reopened. They asked that control of the schools be returned to the local school board and that they be directed to reopen public schools. Legal battles for the schools to reopen and integrate continued from 1959 to 1964. The legal cases attracted national attention. Finally, on May 25, 1964, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward that the county had violated the students’ right to an education and ordered the schools to be reopened. Citation: Petition from students at Lane High School, Charlottesville, to reopen, to Governor J. Lindsay Almond Jr., Richmond. September 1958. Virginia, Governor (1958–1962), Executive Papers, 1958-1962, Accession 26230, Box 136, Barcode 1052833, Folder Norfolk Segregation, State Government Records Collection, Library of Virginia. Standards VS.11, USII.8, CE.6, CE.7, CE.9, VUS.16, VUS.17, GOVT.10, GOVT.11 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Scan It: Scan the petition. What words or phrases stand out to you? What are the students asking for? What are they NOT asking for, and why? Post Activities Food For Thought: Imagine you were a student at this school during this time. Create a petition to Governor Almond on why you think the schools should be open and your thoughts on Brown v. Board of Education. Social Media Spin: Create a social media post for the anniversary of the signing of the letter to Governor Almond. Be sure to include relevant details about relevant issues which support your post. Current Connections: Do you think all students receive an equal education today in the United States? Why or why not? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Petition from Students at Lane High School to Reopen Schools, Charlottesville, September 1958 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource September 1985 African American History Government and Civics https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/26ab01ef3ab018c2135c683ba134dc7d.jpg 7a95a453e805bdf1eaf20719d94c7e8d https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/c4b2704b80fd4dee2e22c67261a976f3.jpg fc3c7d7f4435815067d3d9a8a2f6d635 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/607bb8df71d01384ad73b0910453f831.jpg dbae287815bfe3a489138df791a6c99a https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/dc5dd82903823ecd52881ee5c60d6dc3.pdf 211d3a41869956ccde7e1a0859eb9b4d https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/2901149d698f63d14ca8a920ce228819.pdf af5d9984e57f13639406948901c2e214 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Postwar United States Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1945 - 1970s Description An account of the resource The era following World War II brought about vast changes, not only in foreign policy, but in economics and a changing civic landscape. The liberalism of the New Deal era grew into movements towards increasing civil liberties and economic opportunities, particularly for underrepresented communities and women. Protests became more common as groups demanded equal rights and voting equality. These movements were juxtaposed with Jim Crow laws and the reemergence of the Ku Klux Klan. The Cold War pitted the United States and its allies in NATO against the Soviet Union and other communist nations, particularly China, Korea, and Vietnam. During this period campaigns were fought not only on the battleground, but in the political arena and social consciousness as well. The fall of the Nazi regime opened the door to the Iron Curtain and Soviet dominance of Eastern Europe. Through the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan the U.S. sought to halt the spread of communism further west. The defeat of Japan enabled previously occupied counties the chance to choose new leaders, many of whom sided with communism over capitalism. The United States would spend much of this period adhering to the “Domino Theory” foreign policy to contain the spread of communism. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a> Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context On May 17, 1954, after nearly two decades of legal challenges against racial segregation in public schools and higher education, the United States Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas that school segregation was unconstitutional. The decision paved the way for desegregation of educational institutions. Prior to Brown v. Board of Education decision, legal segregation had existed under the "separate but equal" doctrine. However, the separate educational facilities and opportunities the southern states offered to Black Americans were inferior, not equal, to those designed for white Americans. In 1956, Virginia's General Assembly adopted a policy of Massive Resistance using the law and courts to obstruct desegregation and to not comply with changes which were being made nationwide in response to Brown v. Board of Education. Thomas B. Stanley served as governor of Virginia (1954–1958) during the turbulent first years of Massive Resistance to school desegregation. His initial reaction to the 1954 U.S. Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas was moderate, but he eventually relented to pressure and backed legislation designed to maintain what supporters called “separate but equal” schools. Virginians' reactions to Brown v. Board of Education were varied—while some approved the decision enthusiastically, there were also those who bitterly opposed it. Eliza L. Fitch, a self-described ordinary citizen of Charlottesville, wrote to Governor Stanley after he expressed his desire that public schools remain segregated. She described her hope that cooler heads would prevail and that people would accept the Supreme Court decision. She explained that she had no objection to her children attending schools with Black students and Black teachers. Her letter was one of many sent to the governor supporting the school integration. In 1958, two white schools in Charlottesville closed rather than integrate. They reopened with a small number of Black students in 1959 after state and federal courts ruled that closing the schools violated Virginia’s constitution. Citation: Letter from Eliza E. Fitch, Charlottesville, to Governor Thomas B. Stanley, June 26, 1954, Thomas B. Stanley Executive Papers, 1954-1958, Accession 25184, Box 110, Barcode 1057563, State Government Records Collection, Library of Virginia. Standards VS.11, USII.8, CE.6, CE.7, CE.9, VUS.16, VUS.17, GOVT.10, GOVT.11 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Scan It: Scan the letter. What words of phrases stand out to you? Post Activity Analyze: Why did Eliza E. Fitch bring up the Army? Does it make her argument stronger? Think About It: From your reading and study, how do you believe the experiences of a Black student in a Virginia public school were different from that of a white student? Be specific. Another Perspective: If you were the governor of Virginia, how would you reply to Eliza Fitch's letter? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Letter from Eliza E. Fitch of Charlottesville to Governor Thomas B. Stanley, June 26, 1954 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1954 African American History Government and Civics https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/372f6cd634dcda420cc6d933f49b5ce7.jpg 69fcfbcabb50842b8b177ae122654a3f https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/dbf9ef323a365892509b8700654a4328.pdf fee9a872c42f7c5a2b6536f757626d50 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Postwar United States Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1945 - 1970s Description An account of the resource The era following World War II brought about vast changes, not only in foreign policy, but in economics and a changing civic landscape. The liberalism of the New Deal era grew into movements towards increasing civil liberties and economic opportunities, particularly for underrepresented communities and women. Protests became more common as groups demanded equal rights and voting equality. These movements were juxtaposed with Jim Crow laws and the reemergence of the Ku Klux Klan. The Cold War pitted the United States and its allies in NATO against the Soviet Union and other communist nations, particularly China, Korea, and Vietnam. During this period campaigns were fought not only on the battleground, but in the political arena and social consciousness as well. The fall of the Nazi regime opened the door to the Iron Curtain and Soviet dominance of Eastern Europe. Through the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan the U.S. sought to halt the spread of communism further west. The defeat of Japan enabled previously occupied counties the chance to choose new leaders, many of whom sided with communism over capitalism. The United States would spend much of this period adhering to the “Domino Theory” foreign policy to contain the spread of communism. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a> Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context After the United States Supreme Court ruled in 1954 that school segregation was unconstitutional in the landmark case Brown v. Board of Education, Virginia's white political leaders at the state and local levels led a Massive Resistance movement, even threatening to close public schools rather than desegregate. Governor Thomas B. Stanley backed legislation in the General Assembly to maintain so-called "separate but equal" schools. The reactions by Virginians to Brown v. Board varied—while some approved the decision enthusiastically, there were many who bitterly opposed it. Carl E. Auvil, a navy veteran of World War II and a resident of Falls Church, Virginia, wrote to Governor Stanley in November 1954 to express his views on desegregation. Describing himself as part of a "minority" of Virginians, he informed the governor that his family supported the Supreme Court's decision. He expressed his hope that his young children would be able to attend integrated schools. In 1958, Virginia governor J. Lindsay Almond ordered the closing of public schools in Warren County, Charlottesville, and Norfolk, rather than allow Black students to attend white schools in those localities. In January 1959, a federal district court declared Virginia's Massive Resistance laws unconstitutional based on the “equal protection” clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, and the Virginia Supreme Court of Appeals declared that they violated the state constitution. Many localities in Virginia, however, continued to resist efforts to desegregate public schools into the 1960s. Black students began attending public schools in the independent city of Falls Church in 1961. Citation: Letter from Carl E. Auvil, Falls Church, to Governor Thomas B. Stanley, Richmond, November 15, 1954, Office of the Governor, Thomas B. Stanley Papers, Library of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia. Standards VS.11, USII.8, CE.6, CE.7, CE.9, VUS.16, VUS.17, GOVT.10, GOVT.11 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Scan It: Scan the transcript of the speech. What words or phrases stand out to you? Post Activities Analyze: Why do you think Carl Auvil described himself as in the "minority" of Virginians? Do you think he was? Why or why not? Think About It: From your reading and study, how do you believe the experiences of a Black student in a Virginia public school were different from that of a white student? Be specific. Another Perspective: If you were the governor of Virginia, how would you have responded to Virginians' reactions to Brown v. Board of Education? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Letter from Carl E. Auvil to Governor Thomas B. Stanley, November 15, 1954 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1954 African American History Government and Civics https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/1decbc42c23c402c2c4eecf0c79d7dcf.jpg 9428225ad35ed4f6931efa477987489c https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/f0c4682803b154953c175b1e2fc0b50e.jpg 123b2ad3829f2566796c05fc8654c017 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/ec8b2398235d6c4db60859702af49d5e.pdf cab6678eb7eeceeb14a9ab8211280797 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Postwar United States Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1945 - 1970s Description An account of the resource The era following World War II brought about vast changes, not only in foreign policy, but in economics and a changing civic landscape. The liberalism of the New Deal era grew into movements towards increasing civil liberties and economic opportunities, particularly for underrepresented communities and women. Protests became more common as groups demanded equal rights and voting equality. These movements were juxtaposed with Jim Crow laws and the reemergence of the Ku Klux Klan. The Cold War pitted the United States and its allies in NATO against the Soviet Union and other communist nations, particularly China, Korea, and Vietnam. During this period campaigns were fought not only on the battleground, but in the political arena and social consciousness as well. The fall of the Nazi regime opened the door to the Iron Curtain and Soviet dominance of Eastern Europe. Through the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan the U.S. sought to halt the spread of communism further west. The defeat of Japan enabled previously occupied counties the chance to choose new leaders, many of whom sided with communism over capitalism. The United States would spend much of this period adhering to the “Domino Theory” foreign policy to contain the spread of communism. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a> Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context The Cuban Missile Crisis occurred during John F. Kennedy’s presidency. In October 1962 a United States spy plane captured evidence that the Soviet Union was moving nuclear missiles into Cuba. Located just 90 miles off the coast of Florida, Cuba had allied with the Soviet Union after Fidel Castro took control of its government. After the end of World War II, the United States sought to prevent the spread of Soviet communism in the decades-long Cold War through diplomacy, strategic alliances, economic aid, espionage, and military arms buildup, including nuclear weapons. On October 22, after several days of secret planning with trusted advisors, President Kennedy announced to the world that Soviet nuclear missiles were being transported to Cuba and that the United States would implement a naval blockade to prevent further shipments. While the blockade succeeded in stopping additional nuclear weapons from entering Cuba, nuclear experts there were already working to make them fully operational. President Kennedy seemed to be facing two options: attack, or accept the presence of Soviet nuclear weapons in Cuba. Kennedy instead proposed a policy that the U.S would not invade Cuba if the Soviet Union removed the nuclear missiles. Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev agreed, in part because the U.S. agreed secretly to remove its missiles from neighboring Turkey within six months of the removal of Soviet missiles from Cuba. Scholars consider this incident to be the closest that the United States and the Soviet Union came to a full-scale nuclear war. It illustrates just how easily tensions in the Cold War could erupt into crises during this period. The Central Intelligence Agency declassified many documents related to the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1992. This map, used in secret meetings to determine the U.S. response, shows the range of the missiles installed in Cuba. It was part of the CIA's first memorandum about the missile sites in Cuba. Citation: Excerpts from Document 46, "CIA Memorandum, Probably Soviet MRBM Sites in Cuba, 16 October 1962," in Central Intelligence Agency, CIA documents on the Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962, editor, Mary S. McAuliffe, [1992], Federal Documents Microfiche, PREX 3.2:M 69, Library of Virginia. <a href="https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/books-monographs/cuban-missile-crisis-1962/">This collection of declassified documents is available online at the Center for the Study of Intelligence</a>. Standards USII.7, VUS.15 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Scan it: Scan the document. What words and phrases stand out to you? List the words and phrases. Post Activities STEM STAT: The map provides a visual depiction of the reasons why nuclear missiles in Cuba could have had dangerous consequences. Using the map, list 3 or 4 possible reasons why the Soviet Union would choose to place nuclear arms in Cuba and why the United States needed to ensure that they be permanently removed. Current Connections: How can studying the Cuban Missile Crisis help policy makers today? Consider policies regarding Iran, North Korea, and China. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Cuban Missile Crisis—Strategic Consideration, October 1962 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1962 Government and Civics Military History https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/e94abba90cd96a80fd1d1ee24d05a055.jpg f784fe531fd3314a1b07906ab927ffce https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/c82098f3ae48cdc94d754510e9bf83f1.jpg e482b1d386b7f258da3ae5c0706e6d10 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/b9f9d2a7b4da60f024eedb4969b86e61.pdf c229c09f44c3c6c0fa37838090e1cc32 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Postwar United States Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1945 - 1970s Description An account of the resource The era following World War II brought about vast changes, not only in foreign policy, but in economics and a changing civic landscape. The liberalism of the New Deal era grew into movements towards increasing civil liberties and economic opportunities, particularly for underrepresented communities and women. Protests became more common as groups demanded equal rights and voting equality. These movements were juxtaposed with Jim Crow laws and the reemergence of the Ku Klux Klan. The Cold War pitted the United States and its allies in NATO against the Soviet Union and other communist nations, particularly China, Korea, and Vietnam. During this period campaigns were fought not only on the battleground, but in the political arena and social consciousness as well. The fall of the Nazi regime opened the door to the Iron Curtain and Soviet dominance of Eastern Europe. Through the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan the U.S. sought to halt the spread of communism further west. The defeat of Japan enabled previously occupied counties the chance to choose new leaders, many of whom sided with communism over capitalism. The United States would spend much of this period adhering to the “Domino Theory” foreign policy to contain the spread of communism. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a> Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context The Loving v. Virginia case ended a long history of banning marriage between white and Black Virginians dating back to the 17th century. In 1878 the General Assembly enacted a law punishing both parties in an interracial marriage with prison sentences in the state penitentiary (previously only the white partner in an interracial marriage had been subject to prosecution). The Racial Integrity Act of 1924 further restricted interracial marriage by making it illegal for a white person to marry anyone not classified as white. The General Assembly also continued to narrow racial classifications of Black, Indian, and white Virginians early in the 20th century, culminating in a 1930 amendment to the Racial Integrity Act declaring that a person "in whom there is ascertainable any negro blood" was deemed "a colored person." In 1958, Caroline County residents Richard Loving, a white man, and Mildred Jeter, a multi-racial woman, traveled to Washington, D.C., to get married in violation of Virginia law. They were arrested a few months after returning home. A local judge gave them a 25-year suspended sentence provided they leave the state immediately. They could return to visit family only if they traveled separately and were not in the Commonwealth at the same time. After living in Washington for five years, they decided they wanted to move back home. While visiting family, the couple was arrested again and released on bail. They took action to challenge the Racial Integrity Act on Constitutional grounds. Mildred Loving wrote a letter to the United States Attorney General Robert Kennedy, asking for his help. He referred Mildred Loving to the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU). With the help of ACLU attorney Bernard Cohen and civil rights lawyer Philip Hirschkop, the Lovings filed a suit to overturn their conviction and sentence. Sentenced to a year in prison by the Caroline County judge, the Lovings appealed to the Virginia Supreme Court, which upheld the judge's ruling. They then appealed the case to the United States Supreme Court, where Cohen argued that the Racial Integrity Act violated the Lovings’ rights to due process as articulated by the Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitution. On June 12, 1967, the Supreme Court ruled in unanimously in favor of the Lovings, ending decades of Virginia’s discriminatory laws and overturning bans on interracial marriage across the country. This excerpt is from the verdict by Caroline County judge Leon Bazile on January 22, 1965. After the Virginia Supreme Court's decision to uphold the 1924 Racial Integrity Act, Life Magazine published an article about the Lovings on March 18, 1966. Life Magazine was a national publication and brought the issue of interracial marriage bans in Virginia to the attention of people across the country. Citation: Excerpt from Leon Bazile’s decision, Jan. 22, 1965, in Commonwealth v. Richard Perry Loving and Mildred Delores Jeter, 1958-1966, Caroline Co. Court Records (reel 79), Local Government Records Collection, Library of Virginia and excerpt from "The Crime of Being Married" (with photographs by Grey Villet), Life Magazine, March 18, 1966. Related Document Bank Entries: <a href="https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/items/show/168">Application for Marriage License Under the Racial Integrity Act, 1924</a> <a href="https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/items/show/226">Virginia Health Bulletin: The New Virginia Law To Preserve Racial Integrity, March 1924</a> <a href="https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/racial-integrity-laws-1924-1930/">Learn more about "Racial Integrity Laws" online at Encyclopedia Virginia. </a> For more information on the effects of the racial integrity laws on Virginia Indian and Black citizens, see Arica Coleman, That the Blood Stay Pure: African Americans, Native Americans, and the Predicament of Race in Virginia (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2013). Standards VS.11, USII.8, CE.6, CE.7, CE.9, VUS.16, VUS.17, GOVT.10, GOVT.11 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Look at It: Look at the headlines and images. What do you think is the tone the article is taking, and why? Post Activities Analyze: Read the excerpt from the judge's verdict convicting the Lovings of a felony. Why did he claim that the law banning interracial marriage was necessary? How did he use tradition and religion to justify interracial marriage? What do you think of this argument, and why? Looking at Language: Read the excerpt from the Life Magazine article. How are the Lovings portrayed? How does the reporter characterize their dilemma? Dig Deeper: Look at the 1924 Health Bulletin here: <a href="https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/items/show/226">https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/items/show/226</a> Loving v. Virginia overturned the 1924 law. Why do you think it took so much effort to overturn this law? Why did the Supreme Court have to get involved? What do you think about Virginia lawmakers’ and officials’ attitudes toward interracial marriage, and why? Is the right to marry whomever you want still an issue today, and why or why not? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Crime of Being Married, Loving v. Virginia, 1967 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1967 African American History Government and Civics Reform Movements https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/3c847e5ceb10e5683bf1fd4d3cc7a59b.jpg 4df49c6c9679311077f5f1f9975eda3a https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/5035dee6ca1340f263dfcae0379466a2.pdf 3de2ef129658967361e664df8ddd7630 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Postwar United States Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1945 - 1970s Description An account of the resource The era following World War II brought about vast changes, not only in foreign policy, but in economics and a changing civic landscape. The liberalism of the New Deal era grew into movements towards increasing civil liberties and economic opportunities, particularly for underrepresented communities and women. Protests became more common as groups demanded equal rights and voting equality. These movements were juxtaposed with Jim Crow laws and the reemergence of the Ku Klux Klan. The Cold War pitted the United States and its allies in NATO against the Soviet Union and other communist nations, particularly China, Korea, and Vietnam. During this period campaigns were fought not only on the battleground, but in the political arena and social consciousness as well. The fall of the Nazi regime opened the door to the Iron Curtain and Soviet dominance of Eastern Europe. Through the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan the U.S. sought to halt the spread of communism further west. The defeat of Japan enabled previously occupied counties the chance to choose new leaders, many of whom sided with communism over capitalism. The United States would spend much of this period adhering to the “Domino Theory” foreign policy to contain the spread of communism. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a> Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context Harry Flood Byrd (1887–1966) served as state senator from 1915 to 1926, governor from 1926 to 1930, and as a United States Senator from 1933 to 1965. Byrd hailed from Winchester, Virginia, and came from a prominent and politically connected family. In fact, he took over the chairmanship of the Democratic Party from his uncle in 1923. Byrd owned apple orchards and three newspapers, and as state senator and governor he advocated for business interests above all other matters. He urged the General Assembly to pass an anti-lynching law, for example, because he believed it would make the state more attractive to businesses. He supported the creation of the Shenandoah National Park and John D. Rockefeller’s bankrolling the creation of Colonial Williamsburg, because they boosted tourism and enhanced Virginia's national reputaion. At the same time, Byrd's political organization, which was entrenched in Virginia from the 1920s to the 1960s, maintained a conservative outlook in many ways. He did not support women's voting rights. He implemented a “pay as you go” policy to use tax money instead of public bonds to pay for state roads and other infrastructure. This kept taxes low and reduced the amount of money spent on public projects. While this may have been attractive to businesses, Virginia's road construction, public education, and public health programs remained below national standards. As a U.S. Senator, Harry F. Byrd was a staunch opponent of President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal projects, and voted against funding public works programs, education, and public housing programs. Byrd voted against a minimum-wage increase and was one of only six senators (including Virginia’s Carter Glass) to vote against the Social Security Act. Not surprisingly, Byrd voted for legislation that limited the power of unions and he was a strong advocate for states’ rights. He also voted against the Marshall Plan and Truman Doctrine, although he was not against cooperating with other countries. Perhaps somewhat ironically, he supported government conservation and National Park efforts because of his interest in the outdoors. Harry F. Byrd is perhaps best known nationally for his plan to keep schools segregated in the wake of the Supreme Court's 1954 Brown v Board of Education decision. The author of the term “Massive Resistance,” Byrd encouraged local Virginia politicians to obstruct desegregation. He helped to write the “Southern Manifesto,” in which nineteen U.S. Senators and seventy-seven Congressmen accused the Supreme Court of overstepping its authority by interfering with state matters. He also encouraged the closure of Virginia schools and continued to support obstructionist methods when the courts ordered public schools to reopen. Byrd spent his remaining years in office fighting civil rights legislation and social programs proposed by Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson. In November 1965, Byrd retired from the U.S. Senate and eleven months later he died from complications of a brain tumor. Richmond artist John Slavin painted this portrait of Harry Byrd in 1947, when he was serving in the U.S. Senate. It was displayed in the Virginia State Capitol as his gubernatorial portrait. Citation: John D. Slavin, Harry Flood Byrd Portrait, 1947, State Art Collection, Library of Virginia. <a href="https://www.lva.virginia.gov/public/dvb/bio.asp?b=Byrd_Harry_Flood_1887-1966">Learn more about Harry F. Byrd in his Dictionary of Virginia Biography entry.</a> Suggested Questions Preview Activity Artistic Exploration: Look at the portrait of Byrd, the colors the artist used, and the background. Briefly describe Byrd's facial expressions, posture, and setting. From the portrait, what can you conclude about Byrd the man and Byrd the politician? Post Activities Dig Deeper: Compare the portrait to this photograph of Byrd: <a href="https://encyclopediavirginia.org/238hpr-788481c27962556/">https://encyclopediavirginia.org/238hpr-788481c27962556/</a> How does Byrd as depicted in this photograph differ from the portrait painted of him? Why do you think these two images are so different? What might Byrd have been trying to do in the photograph? Political Plans: Imagine that you are a member of the Republican Party in Virginia in the 1950s, and that you do not support massive resistance. How might you challenge Byrd and the local Byrd machine? What arguments would you make, and why? Standards VS.11, USII.3, USII.5, USII.9, VUS.10 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Harry F. Byrd, Painting on Canvas, 1947 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1947 Government and Civics https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/da54a345cfe95b01c4cf055dcda4218c.jpg fba5e4a664a722f8de741874c49edc67 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/fd777d4a8260530de501c91a392bca9c.pdf eaed51a14adec3f2c322d9c05461baea Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Postwar United States Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1945 - 1970s Description An account of the resource The era following World War II brought about vast changes, not only in foreign policy, but in economics and a changing civic landscape. The liberalism of the New Deal era grew into movements towards increasing civil liberties and economic opportunities, particularly for underrepresented communities and women. Protests became more common as groups demanded equal rights and voting equality. These movements were juxtaposed with Jim Crow laws and the reemergence of the Ku Klux Klan. The Cold War pitted the United States and its allies in NATO against the Soviet Union and other communist nations, particularly China, Korea, and Vietnam. During this period campaigns were fought not only on the battleground, but in the political arena and social consciousness as well. The fall of the Nazi regime opened the door to the Iron Curtain and Soviet dominance of Eastern Europe. Through the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan the U.S. sought to halt the spread of communism further west. The defeat of Japan enabled previously occupied counties the chance to choose new leaders, many of whom sided with communism over capitalism. The United States would spend much of this period adhering to the “Domino Theory” foreign policy to contain the spread of communism. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a> Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context Hopewell, Virginia, was like many small towns in the south that benefited financially from outside industrial development early in the 20th century. At the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the E.I. DuPont de Nemours Company began producing guncotton at its new factory at City Point, located at the confluence of the James and Appomattox Rivers. Incorporated as the city of Hopewell in 1916, the area became known for chemical production. Other corporations followed DuPont, and industrial plants in Hopewell engaged in the production of numerous products including pesticides, textiles, and paper pulp. The corporations built company towns under their control with housing, schools, churches, and other facilities for their employees. However, employees who sought better wages and working conditions faced the threats of being fired, blackballed (barred from being hired in other local factories), and possibly even losing their housing. Collective bargaining—joining together to secure better wages, conditions, and benefits—sometimes worked, but in Virginia and other southern states, many politicians were hostile to unions and often stoked racial prejudice to undermine their effectiveness. When Congress passed the National Labor Relations Act (also known as the Wagner Act) in 1935, it asserted the right of unions to bargain collectively and created a National Labor Relations Board to ensure that unions would have protection and recognition. At this time, many factory workers across the country joined unions, and during the 1950s approximately one-third of the U.S. workforce belonged to unions. In Virginia, union membership remained at less than twenty percent of the state's non-agricultural workforce. Many workers in Hopewell joined unions, which also organized social events and recreational activities in addition to supporting workers on strike. By 1952, Hopewell had five local chapters of District 50 of the United Mine Workers of America (representing chemical, coke, and gas production workers), whose members had raised enough money to build a union hall in a town largely controlled by industry. This photograph shows some of the members of Local 12103 of the United Mine Workers in January 1956. Workers at the Solvay Process Division of the Allied Chemical and Dye Corporation, the country’s leading producer of nitrates and nitric acid used in fertilizer, went on strike that month to protest the inadequate pay raises and benefits proposed by the company during a contract negotiation. The strike ended after three days, when the UMW representatives agreed to terms and signed the contract. While they had wanted a fifteen percent wage increase, they managed to secure a six percent increase, an additional paid holiday, a three-year agreement on the pension plan, and an adjustment for Black workers who received unequal pay. Virginia was one of eighteen states that adopted a Right to Work law during the 1940s and 1950s. After the governor broke a strike in 1946 by unionized employees of the Virginia Electric and Power Comany, the General Assembly in 1947 adopted a Right to Work Law that outlawed labor contracts requiring a company's employees to be union members. The law remains in effect today. Citation: Local 12103 on Strike, <a href="https://lva.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01LVA_INST/altrmk/alma9917771644905756">Jan. 26, 1956</a>, Hopewell Virginia Locals of United Mine Workers of America Photograph Collection, Visual Studies Collection, Library of Virginia. Find more photographs in the Library of Virginia's <a href="https://lva.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/discovery/collectionDiscovery?vid=01LVA_INST:01LVA&collectionId=81105528640005756&lang=en">Hopewell Virginia Locals of United Mine Workers of America Photograph Collection online</a>. Read a news report about the strike in <a href="https://virginiachronicle.com/?a=d&d=TSWT19560116.1.3">Southwest Times, Jan. 16, 1956 online</a> at Virginia Chronicle. Suggested Questions Preview Activity Look At It: Look at the photograph. What appears to be happening in the image? What makes you think that? Post Activities Current Connection: Virginia is an at will employment state in which the terms of employment may be terminated by either party for any reason, or no reason at all, upon reasonable notice. Although some unions exist in Virginia, they may not have the same power to influence business practices and policies as they do in other states. How might this arrangement impact the choices employees make in being willing to strike? Are there risks in striking? Explain. Form An Opinion: If you were a worker at the time, would you have decided to strike for better conditions at the risk of losing a paycheck? How bad would conditions have to be for you to strike? Artistic Exploration: Look carefully at the photo of the men on strike and the objects around them. What can you conclude about the six men featured? What do you notice about the barrel and wood in the photo and what might they have been used for and why Standards USII.3, USII.5, USII.7, USII.9, VUS.13, VUS.17, CE.6 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Local 12103 on Strike in Hopewell, Photograph, 1956 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1956 Economics