10 10 232 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/2c83c791e63cc02c0dda94f899c43db5.jpg ad36832e37c7bc8315e0d35a9fbdbe9f https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/14a337be07338e5ac1375468d6131c6b.pdf 58e37e5d005ae768bc20f36fd8d72ced Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Postwar United States Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1945 - 1970s Description An account of the resource The era following World War II brought about vast changes, not only in foreign policy, but in economics and a changing civic landscape. The liberalism of the New Deal era grew into movements towards increasing civil liberties and economic opportunities, particularly for underrepresented communities and women. Protests became more common as groups demanded equal rights and voting equality. These movements were juxtaposed with Jim Crow laws and the reemergence of the Ku Klux Klan. The Cold War pitted the United States and its allies in NATO against the Soviet Union and other communist nations, particularly China, Korea, and Vietnam. During this period campaigns were fought not only on the battleground, but in the political arena and social consciousness as well. The fall of the Nazi regime opened the door to the Iron Curtain and Soviet dominance of Eastern Europe. Through the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan the U.S. sought to halt the spread of communism further west. The defeat of Japan enabled previously occupied counties the chance to choose new leaders, many of whom sided with communism over capitalism. The United States would spend much of this period adhering to the “Domino Theory” foreign policy to contain the spread of communism. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a> Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context After the United States Supreme Court ruled in 1954 that school segregation was unconstitutional in the landmark case Brown v. Board of Education, Virginia's white political leaders at the state and local levels led a Massive Resistance movement, even threatening to close public schools rather than desegregate. Governor Thomas B. Stanley backed legislation in the General Assembly to maintain so-called "separate but equal" schools. The reactions by Virginians to Brown v. Board varied—while some approved the decision enthusiastically, there were many who bitterly opposed it. Members of the NAACP in Warren County sued to desegregate the high school in Front Royal, and in September 1958 a federal district court judge ordered that Black students be admitted to Warren County High School. Governor J. Lindsay Almond closed the school, as well as others in Charlottesville and Norfolk that had also been ordered to desegregate. A total of nine schools were closed, locking out nearly 13,000 students. In January 1959, a federal district court declared Virginia's massive resistance laws unconstitutional based on the “equal protection” clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, and the Virginia Supreme Court of Appeals declared that they violated the state constitution. In February, twenty-three Black students integrated the high school in Warren. Many localities in Virginia continued to resist efforts to desegregate public schools into the 1960s. Alvin and Ainslee Dohme owned Cedarbrook Farm in Warren County, where they raised polled herefords, a breed of hornless beef cattle. Although they did not have children in public schools, they opposed Virginia's policy of Massive Resistance to school desegregation. In February 1959 they wrote to Warren County supervisor Maurice Bowen expressing their opinion that closing public schools to preserve segregation was "traitorous folly and failure in our civic responsibilities." Citation: Letter from Ainslee B. Dohme and Alvin R. L. Dohme, Front Royal, to Maurice Bowen, Front Royal. February 26, 1959. Warren County Board of Supervisors, Petitions and Letters For and Against Public School Integration, February–March 1959, Accession 39750. Library of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia. <a href="https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/massive-resistance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">For more information on Massive Resistance, see Encyclopedia Virginia.</a> Standards VS.11, USII.8, CE.6, CE.7, CE.9, VUS.16, VUS.17, GOVT.10, GOVT.11 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Scan It: Scan the document. What words and phrases stand out to you? Why? Post Activity Analyze: Do you think this letter is effective? How would you make their point stronger? Think About It: Imagine you are a student where schools were closed. How would you feel? Why would you feel this way? Explain. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Letter from Ainslee B. and Alvin R.L. Dohme, Front Royal, 1959 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource February 26, 1959 African American History Government and Civics https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/3034ab2edc1c33f54a00d001885a2216.mp3 f0602bc8a4e706b41a10918a442aaf9b https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/63b252ad098fff48c3c1561eacb0d084.pdf f66b50095a6980cd544c25ef7929f381 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Postwar United States Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1945 - 1970s Description An account of the resource The era following World War II brought about vast changes, not only in foreign policy, but in economics and a changing civic landscape. The liberalism of the New Deal era grew into movements towards increasing civil liberties and economic opportunities, particularly for underrepresented communities and women. Protests became more common as groups demanded equal rights and voting equality. These movements were juxtaposed with Jim Crow laws and the reemergence of the Ku Klux Klan. The Cold War pitted the United States and its allies in NATO against the Soviet Union and other communist nations, particularly China, Korea, and Vietnam. During this period campaigns were fought not only on the battleground, but in the political arena and social consciousness as well. The fall of the Nazi regime opened the door to the Iron Curtain and Soviet dominance of Eastern Europe. Through the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan the U.S. sought to halt the spread of communism further west. The defeat of Japan enabled previously occupied counties the chance to choose new leaders, many of whom sided with communism over capitalism. The United States would spend much of this period adhering to the “Domino Theory” foreign policy to contain the spread of communism. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a> Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context On May 17, 1954, after nearly two decades of legal challenges against racial segregation in public schools and higher education, the United States Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas that school segregation was unconstitutional. The decision paved the way for the desegregation of educational institutions. Prior to Brown v. Board of Education decision, legal segregation had existed under the "separate but equal" doctrine as established by the Supreme Court's 1896 ruling in Plessy v. Ferguson that separate facilities for white and Black Americans did not violate the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. However, the separate educational facilities the southern states provided for African American students were inferior, not equal, to those designed for white students. On the day of the Supreme Court ruling, Governor Thomas B. Stanley addressed Virginians over Richmond radio station WRVA. In these brief remarks, he urged Virginians to remain calm while political leaders worked to take appropriate action. He expressed a desire to meet with white and Black leaders to discuss the issue. However, Governor Stanley's moderate response did not last long. Some white Virginians wrote to him demanding that school segregation continue, and some Virginia politicians, including United States Senator Harry F. Byrd, made it clear that the state would not accept desegregation. Stanley created a commission composed of 32 white men to respond to the Brown decision. The commission created a pupil placement plan that would enable cities and counties to severely limit school desegregation if they chose to, but it was not adopted. Instead, in 1956 Virginia's General Assembly adopted a policy of Massive Resistance to desegregation, using the law and courts to avoid complying with the Supreme Court's mandate to integrate. Citation: Governor Thomas B. Stanley Response to the United States Supreme Court Decision in Brown v. Board of Education. May 17, 1954 (WRVA–344). WRVA Radio Collection, Accession 38210, Library of Virginia. These recordings are for educational use and permission must be requested in writing from WRVA to reproduce any sound recordings. Related Document Bank entries: <a href="https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/items/show/294">Governor Stanley's Address to the General Assembly, August 27, 1956, and the Voices Not Heard</a> <a href="https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/items/show/206">Interposition and Massive Resistance, 1955</a> Standards VS.11, USII.8, CE.6, CE.7, CE.9, VUS.16, VUS.17, GOVT.10, GOVT.11 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Think about It: The concept of desegregating schools was controversial during the1950s and 1960s in Virginia. Based on your reading and studies, why do you think this was the case? List two or three possible reasons. Post Activities Social Media Spin: Create a social media post that you would have shared if you were an organization leader or supporter of school integration. Be the Journalist: Imagine you are a reporter covering Governor Stanley’s response in 1954. What questions you would ask him? Why? Listen to the Language: Listen to Governor Stanley's 1954 address to Virginians and his 1956 address to the General Assembly. What is different about his two speeches? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Governor Stanley's Address to Virginians after the Supreme Court’s Brown v. Board of Education Decision, May 17, 1954 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1954 African American History Government and Civics https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/024f843e5a1e6111511b24b8857f2bfb.jpg 8598e03959dfe842ef3662b809cca3ac https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/fc8c6ee812a8f3790b07295b81627a06.jpg ee111b4fbeb9374faee1d4cec4e9fab8 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/2b4132356bc505a3b9706952c56be79b.jpg 4057a1f72eb92ffe1fed7b7983a06e38 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/525c213b04866427aad8d8127b1741ed.pdf 223f8d35a76297aed62e069a7daa7f71 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Postwar United States Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1945 - 1970s Description An account of the resource The era following World War II brought about vast changes, not only in foreign policy, but in economics and a changing civic landscape. The liberalism of the New Deal era grew into movements towards increasing civil liberties and economic opportunities, particularly for underrepresented communities and women. Protests became more common as groups demanded equal rights and voting equality. These movements were juxtaposed with Jim Crow laws and the reemergence of the Ku Klux Klan. The Cold War pitted the United States and its allies in NATO against the Soviet Union and other communist nations, particularly China, Korea, and Vietnam. During this period campaigns were fought not only on the battleground, but in the political arena and social consciousness as well. The fall of the Nazi regime opened the door to the Iron Curtain and Soviet dominance of Eastern Europe. Through the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan the U.S. sought to halt the spread of communism further west. The defeat of Japan enabled previously occupied counties the chance to choose new leaders, many of whom sided with communism over capitalism. The United States would spend much of this period adhering to the “Domino Theory” foreign policy to contain the spread of communism. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a> Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context When the United States Supreme Court issued its ruling on May 17, 1954, in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, it declared that racial segregation in schools was unconstitutional. The ruling overturned the “separate but equal” doctrine that had enabled Virginia and other southern states to maintain inferior schools for African American students. The court’s decision would make those separate school systems illegal and demand sweeping social changes in how African Americans were treated. Not all Virginians approved of these changes. Richmond News Leader editor James J. Kilpatrick worked behind the scenes with state officials to prevent desegregation and published many editorials in his newspaper urging white Virginians to resist the court’s order, which he denounced as an unconstitutional decree. He revived the 19th century doctrine of interposition—interposing, or placing, the power of the state government between its people and the federal government—to argue that Virginia had the right to defy the Supreme Court. He published a series of editorials about interposition late in 1955. On November 22, Kilpatrick explained why he believed Virginia had the right of interposition to prevent desegregation. In another editorial published on November 29, he used historical examples to justify his argument that Virginia’s heritage and tradition required the state to take the lead in opposing “the Federal Government’s encroachments” on the powers of the states. Political leaders like U. S. Senator Harry F. Byrd and Governor Thomas B. Stanley employed Kilpatrick’s arguments to bolster their efforts to prevent school integration. The General Assembly adopted a resolution of interposition in February 1956, although it had no binding effect. Later that month, Senator Harry Byrd called for massive resistance to desegregation, which the governor and the General Assembly put into effect through legislation passed later that year. Citation: James J. Kilpatrick, "The Right of Interposition," Nov. 22, 1955, and "Interposition Now," Nov. 29, 1955, in Richmond News Leader, Library of Virginia. Related Document Bank entries: <a href="https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/items/show/294">Governor Stanley's Address to the General Assembly, August 27, 1956, and the Voices Not Heard</a> <a href="https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/items/show/97">Harry F. Byrd, Painting on Canvas, 1953</a> Standards VS.11, USII.8, CE.6, CE.7, CE.9, VUS.16, VUS.17, GOVT.10, GOVT.11 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Scan It: Scan the document. What words and phrases stand out to you? Why? Post Activities Analyze: Why do you think opponents of Brown v. Board of Education used the idea of interposition? Could this be used for other arguments as well? What do you think about this argument, and why? Think About it: Why do you think some Virginians supported massive resistance and interposition? Explain. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Interposition and Massive Resistance, 1955 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 1955 African American History Government and Civics https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/06607acd9feca9ab3190f773bc28adf8.jpg f8e1a43b916afe0cd8d7c811d53bf001 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/57fff58cd8a445695b5acd0190cfa664.pdf 9b91da8d601146f838d83408228245ad Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Postwar United States Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1945 - 1970s Description An account of the resource The era following World War II brought about vast changes, not only in foreign policy, but in economics and a changing civic landscape. The liberalism of the New Deal era grew into movements towards increasing civil liberties and economic opportunities, particularly for underrepresented communities and women. Protests became more common as groups demanded equal rights and voting equality. These movements were juxtaposed with Jim Crow laws and the reemergence of the Ku Klux Klan. The Cold War pitted the United States and its allies in NATO against the Soviet Union and other communist nations, particularly China, Korea, and Vietnam. During this period campaigns were fought not only on the battleground, but in the political arena and social consciousness as well. The fall of the Nazi regime opened the door to the Iron Curtain and Soviet dominance of Eastern Europe. Through the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan the U.S. sought to halt the spread of communism further west. The defeat of Japan enabled previously occupied counties the chance to choose new leaders, many of whom sided with communism over capitalism. The United States would spend much of this period adhering to the “Domino Theory” foreign policy to contain the spread of communism. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a> Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context On May 17, 1954, after nearly two decades of legal challenges against racial segregation in public schools and higher education, the United States Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka that school segregation was unconstitutional. Their decision paved the way for desegregation of educational institutions. Prior to Brown v. Board of Education decision, legal segregation had existed under the "separate but equal" doctrine. However, the separate educational facilities and opportunities the Southern states offered to Black Americans were inferior, not equal, to those designed for white Americans. In 1956, Virginia's General Assembly adopted a policy of Massive Resistance using the law and courts to obstruct desegregation and to not comply with changes which were being made nationwide in response to Brown v. Board of Education. In 1957, in the midst of Virginia’s effort to maintain segregation in public schools, James Lindsay Almond Jr., won the gubernatorial election by pledging to uphold Massive Resistance. In September 1958, he closed schools in Charlottesville, Front Royal, and Norfolk rather than see them segregated. By January 1959, both the federal court and state supreme court declared Virginia's Massive Resistance laws unconstitutional and ordered the schools reopened. However, Prince Edward County officials defied all court orders to open on a desegregated basis, and in June 1959 the county Board of Supervisors voted to cut off revenues to the public schools. Prince Edward County was the only locality in the nation to take this step. County officials were heavily encouraged by segregationists across the state and the South to close schools and remove funding for public education. The schools in the county remained closed for the next five years. While white students attended the new private school, Prince Edward Academy, Black students were left with no educational facilities. Some local organizations provided rudimentary education at churches. Some Black students attended classes in nearby counties, or, with the aid of Quaker-affiliated American Friends Service Committee, relocated to other areas. However, many students had no form of education and most Black teachers lost their jobs. In February 1963, President John F. Kennedy spoke about Prince Edward County in a civil rights address to Congress. While attending a centennial celebration for the Emancipation Proclamation on March 18, 1963, Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy urged action in Prince Edward County, noting that "the only places on earth not to provide free public education are Communist China, North Vietnam, Sarawak, Singapore, British Honduras—and Prince Edward County, Virginia." Kennedy's administration assisted in organizing the Prince Edward Free School Association, which rented three of the closed public schools for Black students to attend during the 1963–1964 school year. On May 11, 1964, Robert F. Kennedy visited Prince Edward County to observe the Free Schools. During the 1963-1964 school year, about 1,500 students (including four white children) attended the Free schools in the county. Citation: Robert Kennedy Visited Prince Edward County Schools, May 11, 1964, photograph in Southern School News 10 (June 1964):10, Library of Virginia. Standards K.4, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2, 3.1, 3.9, VS.11, USII.8, CE.6, CE.7, CE.9, VUS.16, VUS.17, GOVT.10, GOVT.11 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Scan It: Scan the document. What words and phrases stand out to you? Why? Post Activities Political Plans: If you were President John F. Kennedy, how would you have responded to Virginia’s reactions to Brown v. Board of Education and the policy of Massive Resistance? Analyze: Why do you think Robert F. Kennedy visited Prince Edward County rather than somewhere else? Why was his visit considered an important event? Consider the time period and the situation in Prince Edward County. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Robert Kennedy, Visit to Prince Edward County Schools, May 11, 1964 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1964 African American History Government and Civics https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/bd376332899dd959611a65367f903622.jpg d9fb61f789e3388166db8665889a56f9 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/bcf70420d64a89f2d604e15dbe2e1e84.pdf 86652c24ca17d751eb07c0cd930db930 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Description An account of the resource Beyond the toll it took on the nation, the Great Depression helped to shape modern-day America, especially in expanding the role of government in citizens' everyday lives. The circumstances of the Depression spurred President Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal initiatives that included the Works Progress Administration, Civilian Conservation Corps, Farm Security Administration, and the Social Security Administration to assist the unemployed, farmers, and the elderly. World War II helped not only to bring the nation out of the Depression, but also put the United States on the world stage as a superpower. Unlike previous administrations, both Roosevelt and President Harry S. Truman placed the United States on a path to leadership in worldwide conflicts and reform movements. The war changed the role of women as they entered the workforce while American men went to war. Events such as the bombing at Pearl Harbor, liberation of concentration camps, the use of atomic bombs, and the rise of the Soviet Union as a superpower shaped future American foreign policy. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a> Title A name given to the resource The Great Depression and World War II Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1929 - 1945 Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context Indigenous peoples, including Virginia Indian tribes, were not considered American citizens even after ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment. Between 1880 and 1920, many tribes established their own schools, as Black citizens did, likely for similar reasons; state and local funding for white schools far outstripped the schools for other children, and Indigenous people were segregated into their own schools. After a 1930 update to the Racial Integrity Act, Indigenous people's identities were erased from state records as officials defined them as "Black" on all state forms. Indigenous schools offered a way to maintain tribal identities in the wake of this discrimination. This photograph of the Pamunkey Indian School in King William County was taken in 1937 as part of a photographic survey commissioned by the Virginia Department of Education. The school was located on the Pamunkey Indian Reservation, which had been established in 1646 and may be the oldest reservation in North America. The Pamunkey established a school there during the 1880s in a log cabin near the entrance of the reservation. This schoolhouse in this picture was built in 1909. It served children in grades one through seven, and like other Indigenous students across the commonwealth, those wishing to continue their education had to attend boarding schools away from the reservation. All but one of these schools were located outside of Virginia. The Pamunkey School closed in 1948 because of low attendance, and the remaining students were transferred to the Mattaponi Reservation School. The Pamunkey Indian School is now part of the tribal museum on the Pamunkey Reservation. Citations/For Further Reading: Ashley Craig, "Indigenous Education in Virginia," Uncommonwealth, Library of Virginia, <a href="https://uncommonwealth.virginiamemory.com/blog/2024/04/17/indigenous-education-in-virginia/">https://uncommonwealth.virginiamemory.com/blog/2024/04/17/indigenous-education-in-virginia/</a> Pamunkey Indian Tribe and Reservation, "Cultural Resources," <a href="https://pamunkey.org/cultural-resources#:~:text=According%20to%20a%20Tribal%20Ledger,from%201st%20through%207th%20grade.">https://pamunkey.org/cultural-resources#:~:text=According%20to%20a%20Tribal%20Ledger,from%201st%20through%207th%20grade.</a> Citation: Pamunkey Schoolhouse Photograph, May 31, 1937; Pamunkey Indian School, Pamunkey Indian Reservation, King William County, School Buildings Service Photograph Collection, Library of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia Standards K.4, 1.1, 1.6, 2.5, 3.1, VS.8, USII.3, USII.5, VUS.10, VUS.12 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Look at It: Look carefully at the Pamunkey School House photograph. From the picture, what can you determine about the size of the school? What do you think it might have been like to attend the school? What do you notice about the children in the photograph? Post Activities Analyze: Why do you think Indigenous peoples were not considered American citizens? Why do you think that Virginia officials erased Indigenous identity from state records in the twentieth century? Current Connections: The Pamunkey Indian School building still stands on the Pamunkey Indian Reservation as part of a museum and cultural center. Why is important for this building to be left intact? What might this symbolize for the Pamunkey people? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Pamunkey Schoolhouse Photograph, May 31, 1937 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1937 American Indian History Government and Civics https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/7b5be075ebce94a7f0068d4b5d60929b.jpg e3e1d8d547ef64d53e87ac250ce0e15a https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/b638f8260c0dbfbd5bc8421925f71491.mp3 e3c23052dc4d704a9eb147b91dbb2aab https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/abe1b56a38bbbfaf9251c4749670c943.pdf 5f5690241bb4589e48c824a0701b94d9 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Postwar United States Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1945 - 1970s Description An account of the resource The era following World War II brought about vast changes, not only in foreign policy, but in economics and a changing civic landscape. The liberalism of the New Deal era grew into movements towards increasing civil liberties and economic opportunities, particularly for underrepresented communities and women. Protests became more common as groups demanded equal rights and voting equality. These movements were juxtaposed with Jim Crow laws and the reemergence of the Ku Klux Klan. The Cold War pitted the United States and its allies in NATO against the Soviet Union and other communist nations, particularly China, Korea, and Vietnam. During this period campaigns were fought not only on the battleground, but in the political arena and social consciousness as well. The fall of the Nazi regime opened the door to the Iron Curtain and Soviet dominance of Eastern Europe. Through the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan the U.S. sought to halt the spread of communism further west. The defeat of Japan enabled previously occupied counties the chance to choose new leaders, many of whom sided with communism over capitalism. The United States would spend much of this period adhering to the “Domino Theory” foreign policy to contain the spread of communism. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a> Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Transcription Any written text transcribed from a sound test Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Sound Clip Duration Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.) 3 minutes 10 seconds Context On May 17, 1954, after nearly two decades of legal challenges against racial segregation in public schools and higher education, the United States Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas that school segregation was unconstitutional. Their decision paved the way for desegregation of educational institutions. Prior to Brown v. Board of Education decision, legal segregation had existed under the "separate but equal" doctrine. However, the separate educational facilities and opportunities the Southern states offered to Black Americans were inferior, not equal, to those designed for white Americans. In 1956, Virginia's General Assembly adopted a policy of Massive Resistance, using the law and courts to obstruct desegregation and to not comply with changes which were being made nationwide in response to Brown v. Board of Education. In 1957, in the midst of Virginia’s effort to maintain segregation in public schools, James Lindsay Almond Jr., won the gubernatorial election by pledging to uphold Massive Resistance. In September 1958, Gov. Almond closed schools in Charlottesville, Front Royal, and Norfolk in accordance with a new state law authorizing the governor to close public schools that desegregated. On January 19, 1959, both the federal district court and the Virginia Supreme Court overturned Massive Resistance laws and ordered that schools be reopened. The following day, Gov. Almond gave a public speech that was broadcast on radio and television. In this excerpt he reiterates his belief that desegregating schools would have a negative impact on children and that court decisions promoting integration should be ignored. However, he soon declared that Massive Resistance could not continue and formed a commission to develop a new plan that would limit desegregation efforts. The closed schools reopened with small numbers of Black students, but many white Virginians across the state continued to obstruct integration into the 1960s. In 1968, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Charles C. Green et al. v. County School Board of New Kent County, Virginia that cities and counties had to demonstrate actual progress in desegregating schools. Citation: Excerpt from J. Lindsay Almond School Integration Speech, 20 January 1959 (WRVA–386), WRVA Radio Collection, Accession 38210, Library of Virginia. These recordings are for educational use and permission must be requested in writing from WRVA to reproduce any sound recordings. <a href="https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/massive-resistance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">For more information on Massive Resistance, see Encyclopedia Virginia.</a> <a href="https://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Green_Charles_C_et_al_v_County_School_Board_of_New_Kent_County_Virginia" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">For more information about Charles C. Green et al. v. County School Board of New Kent County, Virginia, see Encyclopedia Virginia.</a> Standards K.4, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2, 3.1, 3.9, VS.11, USII.8, CE.6, CE.7, CE.9, VUS.16, VUS.17, GOVT.10, GOVT.11 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Scan It: Scan the transcript of the speech. What words or phrases stand out to you? Post Activities Context Clues: Listen to the audio clip of Governor Almond’s speech. How does his presentation give clues to the anticipated reactions of listeners? How does he use his voice to try to elicit emotional responses? Be a Journalist: Assume the role of a newspaper editorialist and compose a rebuttal to Governor Almond. In your response address at least three statements made by Almond. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource J. Lindsay Almond School Integration Speech, January 20, 1959 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource January 20, 1959 African American History Government and Civics https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/8095bb482e5bb1ce4bb7c8d382e8345e.jpg eefa9cc4475b271bd75a1b28eb643163 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/858e7204022fdf5dca9c41bf32e69e6f.jpg 54102d5ca6b19341c676c3c6cfd88568 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/ad37c12b8bf0648d0103a45673da120e.pdf 1da8e9b7927531b44479850bfe96b47a Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Postwar United States Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1945 - 1970s Description An account of the resource The era following World War II brought about vast changes, not only in foreign policy, but in economics and a changing civic landscape. The liberalism of the New Deal era grew into movements towards increasing civil liberties and economic opportunities, particularly for underrepresented communities and women. Protests became more common as groups demanded equal rights and voting equality. These movements were juxtaposed with Jim Crow laws and the reemergence of the Ku Klux Klan. The Cold War pitted the United States and its allies in NATO against the Soviet Union and other communist nations, particularly China, Korea, and Vietnam. During this period campaigns were fought not only on the battleground, but in the political arena and social consciousness as well. The fall of the Nazi regime opened the door to the Iron Curtain and Soviet dominance of Eastern Europe. Through the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan the U.S. sought to halt the spread of communism further west. The defeat of Japan enabled previously occupied counties the chance to choose new leaders, many of whom sided with communism over capitalism. The United States would spend much of this period adhering to the “Domino Theory” foreign policy to contain the spread of communism. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a> Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context On May 17, 1954, after nearly two decades of legal challenges against racial segregation in public schools and higher education, the United States Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka that school segregation was unconstitutional. Their decision paved the way for desegregation of educational institutions. Prior to Brown v. Board of Education decision, legal segregation had existed under the "separate but equal" doctrine. However, the separate educational facilities and opportunities the Southern states offered to Black Americans were inferior, not equal, to those designed for white Americans. In 1956, Virginia's General Assembly adopted a policy of Massive Resistance, using the law and courts to obstruct desegregation and to not comply with changes which were being made nationwide in response to Brown v. Board of Education. Virginian's reactions to Brown v. Board of Education were varied -- while some approved the decision enthusiastically, there were also those who bitterly opposed it. In 1957, in the midst of Virginia’s effort to maintain segregation in public schools, James Lindsay Almond Jr., won the gubernatorial election by pledging to uphold Massive Resistance. In September 1958, he closed schools in Charlottesville, Front Royal, and Norfolk rather than see them segregated. By January 1959, both the federal court and state supreme court demanded that schools be reopened, and Massive Resistance laws overturned. Almond continued to appeal these rulings, however the closed schools ultimately reopened to an integrated student body. The courts ordered the admittance of small numbers of Black students into formally all-white schools around the state. The federal government put more and more pressure on the state to integrate its schools and the Departments of Health, Education, and Welfare threatened localities with loss of federal funding if they did not comply. However, Prince Edward County officials defied these court orders and on June 26, 1959, the county board of supervisors voted to cut off revenues to the public schools. Prince Edward County was the only locality in the nation to take this step. County officials were heavily encouraged by segregationists across the state and the South to close schools and remove funding for public education. The schools did not open on September 10 as scheduled. The schools in the county remained closed for the next five years. While white students attended the new private school, Prince Edward Academy, Black students were left with no educational facilities. Some local churches provided rudimentary education and some Black students attended classes in nearby counties, or, with the aid of Quaker-affiliated American Friends Service Committee, relocated to other areas. However, most Black students had no form of education and most Black teachers lost their jobs. The letter from the Baptist Ministers Conference, which represented Black ministers, asked the General Assembly to reopen the public schools. The ministers argued that school closures would have a potentially devastating impact on the young Black students across the state. They also asked that Jim Crow laws be removed as well as they were unfair to the Black community and were rendered non-enforceable by recent court rulings. Legal battles for the schools to reopen and integrate continued from 1959 to 1964. The legal cases attracted national attention. Finally, on May 25, 1964, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward that the county had violated the students’ right to an education and ordered the schools to be reopened. Citation: Letter from Baptist Ministers’ Conference of Norfolk, Portsmouth, and Vicinity, to Governor J. Lindsay Almond Jr., Richmond. January 19, 1960. Virginia, Governor (1958 – 1962), Executive Papers, 1958-1962, Accession 26230, State Government Records Collection, Library of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia. Standards VS.11, USII.8, CE.6, CE.7, CE.9, VUS.16, VUS.17, GOVT.10, GOVT.11 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Scan It: Scan the letter. What words of phrases stand out to you? Post Activities Virginia Validation: Virginia often seems to be in the spotlight for much larger, national issues. Why do you think Virginia has had such a long and varied history near the center of political and social conflict? Current Connections: Do you think all students receive an equal education today in the United States? Why or why not? Food for Thought: Imagine you were a student in Prince Edward County when the schools were closed. Would you have been able to receive an education? If so, how? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Letter from Baptist Ministers Conference to Governor James Lindsay Almond, January 19, 1960 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1960 African American History Government and Civics https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/e8edabd55a3c9f2a007ad0ff20f36f21.jpg 104a19d4c10eb0fa9d5f7d487f26fa5f https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/37c1239da1815975f75793c4ba96c291.pdf 1a2d85697c176a7f132ad97ae6b9e94e Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Postwar United States Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1945 - 1970s Description An account of the resource The era following World War II brought about vast changes, not only in foreign policy, but in economics and a changing civic landscape. The liberalism of the New Deal era grew into movements towards increasing civil liberties and economic opportunities, particularly for underrepresented communities and women. Protests became more common as groups demanded equal rights and voting equality. These movements were juxtaposed with Jim Crow laws and the reemergence of the Ku Klux Klan. The Cold War pitted the United States and its allies in NATO against the Soviet Union and other communist nations, particularly China, Korea, and Vietnam. During this period campaigns were fought not only on the battleground, but in the political arena and social consciousness as well. The fall of the Nazi regime opened the door to the Iron Curtain and Soviet dominance of Eastern Europe. Through the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan the U.S. sought to halt the spread of communism further west. The defeat of Japan enabled previously occupied counties the chance to choose new leaders, many of whom sided with communism over capitalism. The United States would spend much of this period adhering to the “Domino Theory” foreign policy to contain the spread of communism. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a> Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context On May 17, 1954, after nearly two decades of legal challenges against racial segregation in public schools and higher education, the United States Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas that school segregation was unconstitutional. Their decision paved the way for desegregation of educational institutions. Prior to Brown v. Board of Education decision, legal segregation had existed under the "separate but equal" doctrine. However, the separate educational facilities and opportunities the Southern states offered to Black Americans were inferior, not equal, to those designed for white Americans. In 1956, Virginia's General Assembly adopted a policy of Massive Resistance, using the law and courts to obstruct desegregation and to not comply with changes which were being made nationwide in response to Brown v. Board of Education. Virginians' reactions to Brown v. Board of Education were varied -- while some approved the decision enthusiastically, there were others who bitterly opposed it. In 1957, in the midst of Virginia’s effort to maintain segregation in public schools, James Lindsay Almond Jr., won the gubernatorial election by pledging to uphold Massive Resistance. In September 1958, he closed schools in Charlottesville, Front Royal, and Norfolk rather than see them segregated. By January 1959, both the federal court and state supreme court demanded that schools be reopened, and Massive Resistance laws overturned. Almond continued to appeal these rulings, however the closed schools ultimately reopened to an integrated student body. The courts ordered the admittance of small numbers of Black students into formally all-white schools around the state. The federal government put more and more pressure on the state to integrate its schools and the Departments of Health, Education, and Welfare threatened localities with loss of federal funding if they did not comply. The students at Lane High School in Charlottesville wrote a letter to Governor Almond in 1958 to reopen their school. They cited their rights to a public education as outlined in the state constitution and alluded to the ruling that state school be immediately reopened. They asked that control of the schools be returned to the local school board and that they be directed to reopen public schools. Legal battles for the schools to reopen and integrate continued from 1959 to 1964. The legal cases attracted national attention. Finally, on May 25, 1964, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward that the county had violated the students’ right to an education and ordered the schools to be reopened. Citation: Petition from students at Lane High School, Charlottesville, to reopen, to Governor J. Lindsay Almond Jr., Richmond. September 1958. Virginia, Governor (1958–1962), Executive Papers, 1958-1962, Accession 26230, Box 136, Barcode 1052833, Folder Norfolk Segregation, State Government Records Collection, Library of Virginia. Standards VS.11, USII.8, CE.6, CE.7, CE.9, VUS.16, VUS.17, GOVT.10, GOVT.11 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Scan It: Scan the petition. What words or phrases stand out to you? What are the students asking for? What are they NOT asking for, and why? Post Activities Food For Thought: Imagine you were a student at this school during this time. Create a petition to Governor Almond on why you think the schools should be open and your thoughts on Brown v. Board of Education. Social Media Spin: Create a social media post for the anniversary of the signing of the letter to Governor Almond. Be sure to include relevant details about relevant issues which support your post. Current Connections: Do you think all students receive an equal education today in the United States? Why or why not? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Petition from Students at Lane High School to Reopen Schools, Charlottesville, September 1958 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource September 1985 African American History Government and Civics https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/26ab01ef3ab018c2135c683ba134dc7d.jpg 7a95a453e805bdf1eaf20719d94c7e8d https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/c4b2704b80fd4dee2e22c67261a976f3.jpg fc3c7d7f4435815067d3d9a8a2f6d635 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/607bb8df71d01384ad73b0910453f831.jpg dbae287815bfe3a489138df791a6c99a https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/dc5dd82903823ecd52881ee5c60d6dc3.pdf 211d3a41869956ccde7e1a0859eb9b4d https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/2901149d698f63d14ca8a920ce228819.pdf af5d9984e57f13639406948901c2e214 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Postwar United States Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1945 - 1970s Description An account of the resource The era following World War II brought about vast changes, not only in foreign policy, but in economics and a changing civic landscape. The liberalism of the New Deal era grew into movements towards increasing civil liberties and economic opportunities, particularly for underrepresented communities and women. Protests became more common as groups demanded equal rights and voting equality. These movements were juxtaposed with Jim Crow laws and the reemergence of the Ku Klux Klan. The Cold War pitted the United States and its allies in NATO against the Soviet Union and other communist nations, particularly China, Korea, and Vietnam. During this period campaigns were fought not only on the battleground, but in the political arena and social consciousness as well. The fall of the Nazi regime opened the door to the Iron Curtain and Soviet dominance of Eastern Europe. Through the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan the U.S. sought to halt the spread of communism further west. The defeat of Japan enabled previously occupied counties the chance to choose new leaders, many of whom sided with communism over capitalism. The United States would spend much of this period adhering to the “Domino Theory” foreign policy to contain the spread of communism. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a> Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context On May 17, 1954, after nearly two decades of legal challenges against racial segregation in public schools and higher education, the United States Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas that school segregation was unconstitutional. The decision paved the way for desegregation of educational institutions. Prior to Brown v. Board of Education decision, legal segregation had existed under the "separate but equal" doctrine. However, the separate educational facilities and opportunities the southern states offered to Black Americans were inferior, not equal, to those designed for white Americans. In 1956, Virginia's General Assembly adopted a policy of Massive Resistance using the law and courts to obstruct desegregation and to not comply with changes which were being made nationwide in response to Brown v. Board of Education. Thomas B. Stanley served as governor of Virginia (1954–1958) during the turbulent first years of Massive Resistance to school desegregation. His initial reaction to the 1954 U.S. Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas was moderate, but he eventually relented to pressure and backed legislation designed to maintain what supporters called “separate but equal” schools. Virginians' reactions to Brown v. Board of Education were varied—while some approved the decision enthusiastically, there were also those who bitterly opposed it. Eliza L. Fitch, a self-described ordinary citizen of Charlottesville, wrote to Governor Stanley after he expressed his desire that public schools remain segregated. She described her hope that cooler heads would prevail and that people would accept the Supreme Court decision. She explained that she had no objection to her children attending schools with Black students and Black teachers. Her letter was one of many sent to the governor supporting the school integration. In 1958, two white schools in Charlottesville closed rather than integrate. They reopened with a small number of Black students in 1959 after state and federal courts ruled that closing the schools violated Virginia’s constitution. Citation: Letter from Eliza E. Fitch, Charlottesville, to Governor Thomas B. Stanley, June 26, 1954, Thomas B. Stanley Executive Papers, 1954-1958, Accession 25184, Box 110, Barcode 1057563, State Government Records Collection, Library of Virginia. Standards VS.11, USII.8, CE.6, CE.7, CE.9, VUS.16, VUS.17, GOVT.10, GOVT.11 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Scan It: Scan the letter. What words of phrases stand out to you? Post Activity Analyze: Why did Eliza E. Fitch bring up the Army? Does it make her argument stronger? Think About It: From your reading and study, how do you believe the experiences of a Black student in a Virginia public school were different from that of a white student? Be specific. Another Perspective: If you were the governor of Virginia, how would you reply to Eliza Fitch's letter? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Letter from Eliza E. Fitch of Charlottesville to Governor Thomas B. Stanley, June 26, 1954 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1954 African American History Government and Civics https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/372f6cd634dcda420cc6d933f49b5ce7.jpg 69fcfbcabb50842b8b177ae122654a3f https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/dbf9ef323a365892509b8700654a4328.pdf fee9a872c42f7c5a2b6536f757626d50 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Postwar United States Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1945 - 1970s Description An account of the resource The era following World War II brought about vast changes, not only in foreign policy, but in economics and a changing civic landscape. The liberalism of the New Deal era grew into movements towards increasing civil liberties and economic opportunities, particularly for underrepresented communities and women. Protests became more common as groups demanded equal rights and voting equality. These movements were juxtaposed with Jim Crow laws and the reemergence of the Ku Klux Klan. The Cold War pitted the United States and its allies in NATO against the Soviet Union and other communist nations, particularly China, Korea, and Vietnam. During this period campaigns were fought not only on the battleground, but in the political arena and social consciousness as well. The fall of the Nazi regime opened the door to the Iron Curtain and Soviet dominance of Eastern Europe. Through the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan the U.S. sought to halt the spread of communism further west. The defeat of Japan enabled previously occupied counties the chance to choose new leaders, many of whom sided with communism over capitalism. The United States would spend much of this period adhering to the “Domino Theory” foreign policy to contain the spread of communism. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a> Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context After the United States Supreme Court ruled in 1954 that school segregation was unconstitutional in the landmark case Brown v. Board of Education, Virginia's white political leaders at the state and local levels led a Massive Resistance movement, even threatening to close public schools rather than desegregate. Governor Thomas B. Stanley backed legislation in the General Assembly to maintain so-called "separate but equal" schools. The reactions by Virginians to Brown v. Board varied—while some approved the decision enthusiastically, there were many who bitterly opposed it. Carl E. Auvil, a navy veteran of World War II and a resident of Falls Church, Virginia, wrote to Governor Stanley in November 1954 to express his views on desegregation. Describing himself as part of a "minority" of Virginians, he informed the governor that his family supported the Supreme Court's decision. He expressed his hope that his young children would be able to attend integrated schools. In 1958, Virginia governor J. Lindsay Almond ordered the closing of public schools in Warren County, Charlottesville, and Norfolk, rather than allow Black students to attend white schools in those localities. In January 1959, a federal district court declared Virginia's Massive Resistance laws unconstitutional based on the “equal protection” clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, and the Virginia Supreme Court of Appeals declared that they violated the state constitution. Many localities in Virginia, however, continued to resist efforts to desegregate public schools into the 1960s. Black students began attending public schools in the independent city of Falls Church in 1961. Citation: Letter from Carl E. Auvil, Falls Church, to Governor Thomas B. Stanley, Richmond, November 15, 1954, Office of the Governor, Thomas B. Stanley Papers, Library of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia. Standards VS.11, USII.8, CE.6, CE.7, CE.9, VUS.16, VUS.17, GOVT.10, GOVT.11 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Scan It: Scan the transcript of the speech. What words or phrases stand out to you? Post Activities Analyze: Why do you think Carl Auvil described himself as in the "minority" of Virginians? Do you think he was? Why or why not? Think About It: From your reading and study, how do you believe the experiences of a Black student in a Virginia public school were different from that of a white student? Be specific. Another Perspective: If you were the governor of Virginia, how would you have responded to Virginians' reactions to Brown v. Board of Education? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Letter from Carl E. Auvil to Governor Thomas B. Stanley, November 15, 1954 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1954 African American History Government and Civics