3 10 232 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/5c0e0119c488a38f769822d5bb3e46e6.jpg 254d7b1671d4f1add8b4a6b14b6d82d8 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/d985673f409dd37ecb80e3e3d8911bbf.pdf ab18562ea8a6d5092fad40927547f100 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/72cff44bf37b346b8c5e20c86184ec8e.pdf 17528cc6aefe04826c4659ff02fa924c Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Revolution and the New Nation Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1754-1820s Description An account of the resource The American Revolution is considered one of the most crucial times of United States history to study, as it lays the groundwork for all political history following it. Not only did it end the colonial relationship with England, but it brought about political change that shaped our lives and served as an example for other nations. It also called into question social and political relationships, raising questions regarding freedom and inalienable rights. Some of America’s most important documents and greatest political minds come from this era. The war itself also was revolutionary, with successful guerilla-style fighting and the defeat by colonials of well-trained British military forces. Following the war, the creation of the U.S. Constitution and the process of ratification shifted not only the style of government, but also the way in which governments functioned with an increased public investment. This process also called into question the balance of power between federal and state governments, an issue that continued to be present in American politics long after the Constitution and the Bill of Rights were completed. Despite strong unity among many in during the American Revolution, political, economic, regional, social, ideological, and religious tensions did not fade, and in some cases---especially with respect to slavery---increased as the United States sought to define itself. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a>. Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context Delegates to the Constitutional Convention approved a new constitution for the United States on September 17, 1787. But before it could be adopted, nine states had to ratify the document. It had the support of some of America's brightest statesman such as James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and George Washington, but others feared that it would lead to a central government with too much power. Virginia and New York were home to many detractors. If one or both of these large, wealthy states did not ratify the constitution, the United States could conceivably fail. In Virginia, even the friends of the constitution estimated its support at no more than 50 percent of the voting population (white men who owned property), while in New York the opposition seemed even stronger. Supporters of the Constitution in New York organized a campaign to sell the new plan of government by writing a series of newspaper essays to address the questions and doubts raised by opponents of ratification. Alexander Hamilton, a New York lawyer who had been a delegate to the Philadelphia convention, enlisted the help of fellow lawyer John Jay. James Madison was in New York on official business at the time, and he agreed to assist Hamilton. Madison wrote about about forty percent of the essays. What is known today as the Federalist Papers is a series of eighty-five essays penned by Hamilton, Jay, and Madison between October 1787 and May 1788. They were published anonymously under the pseudonym “Publius” (a statesman who helped establish the Roman republic). Originally and primarily published in two New York state newspapers, the New York Packet and Independent Journal, the essays were reprinted by many other papers at the time. In arguing for the adoption of the Constitution, the essays explained particular provisions of the Constitution in detail. In Federalist No. 10, Madison argued that only a republican form of government could protect against factions whose short-term interests could be detrimental to state and national government. While factions would inevitably emerge, no one faction could dominate another. Instead, he believed that factions elected by different people would have to negotiate and work together to make government function. Essentially, the dangerous nature of factions could be balanced out by the sheer number of different interests represented in government. These pages from Federalist No. 10 are taken from a 1788 published compilation of The Federalist held at the Library of Virginia. In a convention that met in June 1788, Virginia delegates ratified the Constitution by a vote of 89 to 79. Virginia was the tenth state to ratify and was followed by New York one month later. The Federalist Papers are often used today to interpret the intentions of those drafting the Constitution. Citation: Excerpt, No. 10 (p. 57-58) from The Federalist: A Collection of Essays, Written in Favour of the New Constitution, as Agreed Upon by the Federal Convention, September 17, 1787 (1788). Standards USI.7, CE.3, VUS.6, GOVT.1, GOVT.3 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Scan It: Scan the document. What do you think Madison means when he uses the word faction? What other words could you use to identify a faction? What kind of factions can you think of? Post Activities Food for Thought: This document outlines Madison's plan to structure a popularly elected government that can both protect private rights and provide public order and security. Is this realistic? Does Madison have too high of expectations for the government? Has the government lived up to Madison's expectations? Form an Opinion: Imagine you were reading this when it was published in 1787, just a few years after the end of the Revolution. Would you agree with Madison’s warnings about factions? Why or why not? What kinds of factions would you be thinking about if you were a citizen in the late eighteenth century? What factions might you fear based on your position and status in society, and why? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Federalist Papers, Number 10, 1787 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1787 Government and Civics https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/188d16b5febe5f0c120c0200052bfca5.jpg 77731acbedde910363b6fe70fc7f6886 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/6b41a502cd6862a1fa125885d8d1c50c.pdf 97b8a396c63007d57034732e5e94998f https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/59874bfa2e5757d693f86d94972b9deb.pdf d3d4c0952411ae828d445004198de2e8 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Colonization and Settlement Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1607-1763 Description An account of the resource The colonial era in American history is essential in setting the framework for all the eras to follow. Nearly two centuries of colonization on the continent and in the Caribbean provide three distinct groups to study: Europeans, indigenous peoples, and Africans brought to the colonies as enslaved persons. The varying reasons for departure from Europe set the stage for how different colonies came into being and interacted with each other. Violent conflicts, importation of disease, and dispossession of native lands were all results of Europeans’ interactions with the indigenous populations. The importation of enslaved people also led to an economic structure in some colonies that became, in their minds, reliant on the continued existence of slave labor. Government structure and political life had distinct characteristics in New England, the Mid-Atlantic, and the South as they groped their way toward mature political institutions. Economics were affected by geographic location and the local natural resources, adding to regional differences, and sometimes, divisions. Religion and politics were often influenced by the European nation who colonized the area – French, Spanish, Dutch, or English. Religion was a defining characteristic of some colonies, as opposed to the economic reasons for which others were established. Ideas of religious freedom, denominationalism, and the Great Awakening all impacted daily life. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a>. Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context English expansion into Indigenous territories led to several violent eruptions of conflict in the first decades of settlement in Virginia. A series of wars called the Anglo-Powhatan Wars ended in 1646 with the death of Opechancanough, brother of Powhatan and leader of the nation. Several Indigenous tribes signed a treaty that established the first Indigenous reservation in America, set out hunting territories for both sides, and secured English dominance by requiring allied Indigenous communities to pay an annual tribute to the crown. This treaty included the Pamunkey tribe, which had been part of the larger Powhatan confederation. The peace in eastern Virginia held for several decades, but conflict between an English planter and the Doeg tribe in 1675 spiraled into a wider war with the Susquehannock. When Governor Sir William Berkeley refused the demands of Nathaniel Bacon and others for more land and more security on the colony's frontier, Bacon led a militia to attack friendly Indigenous communities in 1676. One of these was the Pamunkey, a tributary tribe whose leader Cockacoeske was forced to retreat into Dragon Swamp after her town had been destroyed and some of her people had been killed and captured despite having agreed to provide warriors to ally with Virginia's government against the Susquehannock. Bacon's Rebellion continued throughout 1676 and pitted colonists who supported the governor against those who supported Bacon, many of whom wanted to eliminate the Indigenous tribes. Fighting continued until Governor Berkeley's forces subdued the rebellion in January 1677. King Charles II sent troops who did not arrive until afterwards, as well as commissioners to report on the conflict. In February 1677, Cockacoeske went before the Virginia Assembly to demand that Pamunkey land be returned and the Pamunkey prisoners be released. The burgesses made no response, but the royal commissioners agreed that the Pamunkey and other tributary tribes had been mistreated. The commissioners negotiated a treaty of peace on behalf of the king with Virginia tribes who had remained loyal to the colonial government. The Treaty of Middle Plantation (now the city of Williasmburg) was read aloud and signed in a public ceremony on May 29, 1677. Cockacoeske signed the treaty as "Queen of the Pamunkey" and on behalf of several tribes of the former Powhatan Confederacy. Her son John West, whose father had been the son of a colonial governor, signed as well. Three other tribal representatives, whose names are not recorded, signed the treaty, including the female leader of the Weyanoke and two male leaders of the Nottoway and Nansemond tribes. This treaty affirmed the rights delineated in the 1646 treaty but also banned English settlers from moving within three miles of Indigenous land. Tribal members had the right to take complaints to the governor, who was to treat them as Englishmen. The governor also had the right to regulate trade between the English and tribuary tribes. The tribes could appoint their own interpreters whom they trusted. The treaty required all Indigenous people who wanted to hunt or fish outside of their land to register with the magistrate of the local district first and forbade them from remaining in those areas overnight. Most of the rights bestowed in the treaty were eroded during subsequent decades, but the treaty still remains in effect. This signature page of the treaty shows Cockacoeske’s signature—the W shape at the top left. Citation: "Articles of Peace Between the Most Mighty Prince . . . Charles the Second . . . Made and Concluded at the Camp at Middle Plantation the nine and twentieth day of May (1677)," in Samuel Wiseman's Book of Record, Pepysian Library, Magdalen College, Cambridge, England (available on Virginia Colonial Records Project microfilm reel 578, Library of Virginia). <a href="https://encyclopediavirginia.org/primary-documents/articles-of-peace-1677/" target="_blank" title="link opens in a new tab" rel="noreferrer noopener">Read a transcription of the published version of the Treaty of Peace online at Encyclopedia Virginia.</a> Related Document Bank entry: <a href="https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/items/show/328">Cockacoeske, Frontlet from King Charles II, 1677</a> <a href="https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/cockacoeske-d-by-july-1-1686/" target="_blank" title="link opens in a new tab" rel="noreferrer noopener">Learn more about Cockacoeske in her Dictionary of Virginia Biography entry online at Encyclopedia Virginia.</a> Suggested Questions Preview Activity Scan It: Read the words in this page of the treaty. Which stand out to you, and why? To whom are these words directed, and why? Post Activities Think About It: Imagine you were an Indigenous person whose tribe had signed a treaty in 1646 and then faced violence during Bacon’s Rebellion. How would you have reacted to that? What would you think about your leaders signing this treaty? Be the Journalist: Imagine you were a journalist about to interview Cockacoeske. What questions would you ask her, and why? What would you expect her answers to your questions to be? Standards VS.2, US1.3, US1.5, VUS.4 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Treaty of Middle Plantation, Signature page, 1677 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1677 American Indian History Government and Civics https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/5fae42f04bd301294bda9d244dbf5770.jpg 9cba767898c9180711274e7a0f161f35 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/d863d5e5d56668e287a0d3d542d04a80.pdf f4c404eb13235cb4997a3b4f61f07ef0 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Colonization and Settlement Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1607-1763 Description An account of the resource The colonial era in American history is essential in setting the framework for all the eras to follow. Nearly two centuries of colonization on the continent and in the Caribbean provide three distinct groups to study: Europeans, indigenous peoples, and Africans brought to the colonies as enslaved persons. The varying reasons for departure from Europe set the stage for how different colonies came into being and interacted with each other. Violent conflicts, importation of disease, and dispossession of native lands were all results of Europeans’ interactions with the indigenous populations. The importation of enslaved people also led to an economic structure in some colonies that became, in their minds, reliant on the continued existence of slave labor. Government structure and political life had distinct characteristics in New England, the Mid-Atlantic, and the South as they groped their way toward mature political institutions. Economics were affected by geographic location and the local natural resources, adding to regional differences, and sometimes, divisions. Religion and politics were often influenced by the European nation who colonized the area – French, Spanish, Dutch, or English. Religion was a defining characteristic of some colonies, as opposed to the economic reasons for which others were established. Ideas of religious freedom, denominationalism, and the Great Awakening all impacted daily life. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a>. Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context Cockacoeske was a significant figure in the history of the Pamunkey tribe in Virginia. She was a descendant of Opechancanough, the brother of Powhatan, who had been the paramount chief of the Powhatan Confederacy. Cockacoeske became weroansqua, or leader, of the Pamunkey after her husband Totopotomoy died in 1656 while fighting as an ally of Virginia's government. In many Indigenous societies, women held positions of power and authority, participating in decision-making and governance alongside men. This stood in stark contrast to the roles of English women in the colony. Female leaders like Cockacoeske played crucial roles in maintaining the social, political, and cultural fabric of their communities. At the time of Cockacoeske's leadership, the Pamunkey were tributaries of the English crown. In 1676, the Virginia Assembly called Cockacoeske to appear before a committee of burgesses and Council members in Jamestown. Fighting between colonists and Indigenous tribes had intensified with Nathaniel Bacon's recent indiscriminate attacks against friends and foes, and the Assembly sought allies in the colony's war against the Susquehannock tribe. Cockacoeske attended wearing a full-length deerskin mantle (or cloak) with a woven band of beaded wampum and peake shells around her head. Described as having "a Majestick air," she addressed the audience of white men and reminded them that Pamunkey warriors had fought and died alongside them, with no compensation to the Pamunkey. She struck a deal with the council to provide a dozen men to help protect the colony against hostile frontier tribes and signed a treaty with the colony in March. During Bacon's Rebellion that summer, Nathaniel Bacon and his followers attacked the Pamunkey, killing some of Cockacoeske's people and capturing forty-five. Cockacoeske herself had to abandon all her belongings and take refuge in the Dragon Swamp, on the Middle Peninsula. There, the group she sheltered nearly starved. In February 1677, she petitioned the General Assembly to release the captives and restore Pamunkey property. The Virginia burgesses were unresponsive, but royal representatives who had been sent to quell the rebellion and investigate its origins determined that her loyalty should be rewarded. Cockacoeske's diplomatic efforts culminated in the signing of the Treaty of Middle Plantation on May 29, 1677. This treaty reunited several tribes under her authority, marking a significant achievement for her leadership. The treaty also protected her tribe’s hunting rights and granted them the right to submit complaints to the governor who was to dispense justice as though they were Englishmen. Cockacoeske led the Pamunkey until her death in 1686. Her legacy as a female leader and diplomat testifies to the strength and resilience of Indigenous Virginians during the challenges of colonial expansion. This frontlet was commissioned by King Charles II as a gift for Cockacoeske, "The Queene of Pamunkey," in recognition of her loyalty. The hammered silver is engraved with the British royal coat of arms. Citation: Frontlet, circa 1677, engraved and hammered silver, loaned for the Library of Virginia's Indigenous Perspectives exhibition by the Pamunkey Indian Museum and Cultural Center (2024). Related Document Bank entry: <a href="https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/items/show/329">Treaty of Middle Plantation, Signature page, 1677</a> Standards K.4, 1.4, 1.5, 2.5, VS.2, VS.3, VS.4, US1.3, WHII.3, VUS.4 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Take a look: Look at the silver frontlet given to Cockacoeske. What do you think this piece represents about her role as a leader and the significance of her legacy? Post Activity Food For Thought: Why do you think it is important to recognize and celebrate the contributions of female leaders in history? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Cockacoeske, Frontlet from King Charles II, 1677 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1677 American Indian History Military History https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/380ba0d057d7b2f82838cc76d0dcb773.jpg 73ff719b0464a6304c59843c7083d090 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/1c6eeeab41debc95b02e7eecd09ecc81.pdf 0f228e4d3c6d459cf5af52f14b261f53 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/15fb698acea54c9a1f797f7df5f3f920.pdf c1d48f1588429340c7cf7b802b4038ce Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Revolution and the New Nation Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1754-1820s Description An account of the resource The American Revolution is considered one of the most crucial times of United States history to study, as it lays the groundwork for all political history following it. Not only did it end the colonial relationship with England, but it brought about political change that shaped our lives and served as an example for other nations. It also called into question social and political relationships, raising questions regarding freedom and inalienable rights. Some of America’s most important documents and greatest political minds come from this era. The war itself also was revolutionary, with successful guerilla-style fighting and the defeat by colonials of well-trained British military forces. Following the war, the creation of the U.S. Constitution and the process of ratification shifted not only the style of government, but also the way in which governments functioned with an increased public investment. This process also called into question the balance of power between federal and state governments, an issue that continued to be present in American politics long after the Constitution and the Bill of Rights were completed. Despite strong unity among many in during the American Revolution, political, economic, regional, social, ideological, and religious tensions did not fade, and in some cases---especially with respect to slavery---increased as the United States sought to define itself. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a>. Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context Abraham Skipwith was the first Black man documented as a property owner in Richmond’s historic Jackson Ward district. Skipwith became a wealthy landowner after emancipating himself in the years following the American Revolution. His story illustrates how enslaved people, as property, were at the mercy of enslavers and the political and judicial systems of the state. It also shows that some enslaved people were able to succeed despite laws designed to keep them in slavery. Skipwith was enslaved by Yorktown merchant and customs official Jacqelin Ambler. From the 1770s through the Revolution, he served Ambler as Ambler achieved powerful government positions as a member of the Council of State and then as treasurer of the Commonwealth. Skipwith may have moved with Ambler to Richmond, or he may have remained behind to oversee Ambler’s business concerns. Ambler sold Skipwith to Thomas Bentley, a western trader and merchant, in 1782. Abraham Skipwith learned to read and write—how is unknown—and may well have transacted business for Bentley in Virginia. Bentley wrote a document to manumit, or free, Skipwith, but it is not known if he wanted to reward Skipwith for his service or some other reason. Bentley failed to execute the manumission papers before he died in 1785. As a result Skipwith became part of Bentley’s estate, and ended up enslaved by merchants Thomas Keene and James Warington. In 1789, Skipwith emancipated himself with a payment of £40 to Keene and Warington, a considerable sum of money. It is not known how he earned the money, but enslaved people in urban areas sometimes had the opportunity to make money outside of the hours they worked for their enslavers. Skipwith earned enough money by 1793 to purchase several lots of land in Richmond, and the following year he purchased the freedom of his wife and granddaughter. In 1793, Skipwith purchased a large tract of land in what would later be known as Jackson Ward. He built a home that is now known as one of Richmond’s oldest surviving structures (although it was moved to Goochland County in the twentieth century). He amassed wealth during his lifetime and may be the first Black Virginian to have a legally executed will. When he died in 1799, he left the land, house, a horse and buggy, a gun, and household items to his descendants. He also left money to buy the freedom of future descendants. Details about Skipwith’s life are few, but evidence suggests that he was politically connected and savvy enough to know that Virginia passed a law in 1782 that enabled owners to free their enslaved people without having to ask permission to do so from the General Assembly. He clearly took the opportunity to seek freedom, finding allies among well-connected white people who supported his efforts. In 1785, Abraham Skipwith submitted this petition to the General Assembly requesting his freedom as promised by Thomas Bentley. The petition was referred to the Committee for Courts of Justice, but his request was not granted. Skipwith also included letters from white men who attested to the fact that Bentley had planned to set Skipwith free. These documents suggest that Skipwith knew how to navigate the political system. It also shows, however, that until Abraham Skipwith earned the money to free himself, he remained legally and materially a possession because the manumission papers were never executed. Citation: Petition of Abraham, November 22, 1785, Williamsburg, Legislative Petitions of the General Assembly, 1776-1865, Accession 36121, Library of Virginia (the petition and all of the supporting documents are <a href="https://lva.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01LVA_INST/altrmk/alma9917819929405756">available online in the Legislative Petitions Digital Collection)</a>. Standards USI.5, VUS.3, GOVT.2 Suggested Questions Pre-Activity Take a look: Look at the words and phrases in the petition. What tone does the petition take? Why do you think Abraham Skipwith takes this tone? Consider what he is trying to do, and consider his audience. Post-Activities Take a Stand: Imagine that Skipwith took the estate to court to try to gain his freedom and hired you as his lawyer. How would you argue that he deserved to be manumitted? Given that two witnesses wrote in support of Bentley’s original manumission document, what questions would you ask them when you called them to the stand in support of Skipwith? Food for Thought: Bentley originally signed the manumission for Skipwith during the American Revolution. What kinds of ideas circulating during this period may have influenced both enslavers’ and enslaved people’s ideas about freedom and enslavement? Do you think it influenced Bentley and Skipwith? Why or why not? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Abraham Skipwith, Petition for Freedom, 1785 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1785 African American History https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/20db5a62123e8e232e95d8ae8ae80ad3.jpg 8e0fb797f369170a40f4b7d78c0b24b3 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/5840731850f1c8173139798280146ae8.jpg 9a538a3b4bc9608868dd8b494f908c25 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/2e2b9d03ac7d0f9f920c01d2e62f9e38.jpg 0f16037ec0de7b2786c27317c9983909 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/f8e4e270b1baf074b0b1d3681b8871cd.pdf af13f442540f842100f35e9b3360d414 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Description An account of the resource Beyond the toll it took on the nation, the Great Depression helped to shape modern-day America, especially in expanding the role of government in citizens' everyday lives. The circumstances of the Depression spurred President Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal initiatives that included the Works Progress Administration, Civilian Conservation Corps, Farm Security Administration, and the Social Security Administration to assist the unemployed, farmers, and the elderly. World War II helped not only to bring the nation out of the Depression, but also put the United States on the world stage as a superpower. Unlike previous administrations, both Roosevelt and President Harry S. Truman placed the United States on a path to leadership in worldwide conflicts and reform movements. The war changed the role of women as they entered the workforce while American men went to war. Events such as the bombing at Pearl Harbor, liberation of concentration camps, the use of atomic bombs, and the rise of the Soviet Union as a superpower shaped future American foreign policy. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a> Title A name given to the resource The Great Depression and World War II Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1929 - 1945 Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context During World War II, Black Americans took the opportunity to point out the hypocrisy of engaging in a war effort to save democracy abroad while maintaining segregation laws at home. Spurred by the national newspaper, Chicago Defender, the Black community engaged in a Double-V campaign—demanding victory for democracy abroad and at home. Black citizens volunteered and enlisted to support all aspects of the war—from Red Cross volunteer chapters to military units—despite the segregation they faced in every aspect of wartime production. After facing significant pressure from civil rights organizations and Black leaders, the U.S. military agreed to allow Black men to enlist in aviator training. The Army Auxiliary Air Force contracted with Tuskegee Institute in Alabama to create a comprehensive training center for Black airmen and support personnel as an “experiment.” This center opened in 1941 and trained about 1,000 pilots and 10,000 support personnel, including mechanics, radio operators, navigators, photographers, and other skilled technicians. The aviators formed the 99th squadron and eventually three additional squadrons that joined the 332nd Fighter Group. Some white military leaders believed that Black men did not have the intellectual capabilities to fly airplanes; the Tuskegee Airmen proved them wrong. More than 350 airmen served in Italy in active combat roles. They flew 1,578 missions in both air combat and escort roles accompanying and protecting the bomber planes over North Africa and Europe. The pilots shot down 112 enemy aircraft and earned a reputation for having the lowest loss record of any escort group. They earned several presidential citations for their excellence in combat and were in demand as escorts for Allied aircraft as well. Although these men held a distinguished record, they still faced segregation and discrimination at home. However, the heroic actions performed by the Tuskegee Airmen and other Black service men and women during World War II contributed to President Harry Truman's order to desegregate the military in 1948. Rhode Island native Ralph H. Davis earned his pilot's license by 1939 and enlisted in the Army Air Corps in November 1941. He was trained as an airplane maintenance technician and served as an instructor with the 889th Flying Squadron and 2143 AAF Base Unit. After World War II, Staff Sergeant Davis and his family settled in his wife's hometown of Staunton, Virginia. The photograph of Davis inspecting a plane during World War II accompanies his biography for the Rhode Island Aviation Hall of Fame. The remaining photographs were published in the yearbook of the Tuskegee Army Flying School. Citation: Photograph and biography of Ralph Davis and photographs published in Tuskegee Army Flying School and AAF 66th FTD Yearbook (ca. 1943), Ralph Hickman Davis Papers, 1943–2021, Accession 50284, Library of Virginia. Standards K.4, 1.1, 2.2, 2.3, USII.6, VUS.14, GOVT.2, GOVT.5 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Take a Look: Look at the photographs. What stands out to you, and why? Post-Activities Be the Journalist: Imagine you are preparing to interview Ralph Davis. What questions would you ask him, and why? Dig Deeper: Read the Document Bank entry<a href="https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/items/show/18"> “I Fought for Virginia.”</a> Think about the racial discrimination faced by men volunteering for the Tuskegee Airmen during World War II. How do you think they would have reacted to this 1942 recruitment effort, and why? How important do you think their contributions were to both the war effort itself and the greater civil rights movement? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Tuskegee Airmen in World War II, Photographs, ca. 1943 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1943 African American History Military History https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/8f66b05ad87146c90bfde792e4173cc9.jpg 7366f785ad2e44c25d9403b473cf733b https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/65e69fba60a22a383577e760faf007e3.pdf b0336c3e471c5c3dc30b7e5e4de78aee https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/97e316754a54e93a3ffc68ea0294ce65.pdf 8d5efd016ea2e52597fc186b2b0c6795 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Revolution and the New Nation Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1754-1820s Description An account of the resource The American Revolution is considered one of the most crucial times of United States history to study, as it lays the groundwork for all political history following it. Not only did it end the colonial relationship with England, but it brought about political change that shaped our lives and served as an example for other nations. It also called into question social and political relationships, raising questions regarding freedom and inalienable rights. Some of America’s most important documents and greatest political minds come from this era. The war itself also was revolutionary, with successful guerilla-style fighting and the defeat by colonials of well-trained British military forces. Following the war, the creation of the U.S. Constitution and the process of ratification shifted not only the style of government, but also the way in which governments functioned with an increased public investment. This process also called into question the balance of power between federal and state governments, an issue that continued to be present in American politics long after the Constitution and the Bill of Rights were completed. Despite strong unity among many in during the American Revolution, political, economic, regional, social, ideological, and religious tensions did not fade, and in some cases---especially with respect to slavery---increased as the United States sought to define itself. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a>. Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context The Battle of Great Bridge, fought in December 1775, was Virginia’s first large-scale battle in the American Revolution. The Virginia militia fought against British regular troops and Loyalist militia that included a unit of Black soldiers. The battle ended in a victory for the patriot troops. After the battles at Lexington and Concord, in Massachusetts, in April 1775, Virginia's royal governor removed the gunpowder stored in the magazine in Williamsburg. In June Governor Dunmore fled the capital to safety on a British battleship and led raids on several communities in Hampton Roads. The Third Virginia Convention began meeting in July and created a military for the colony's defense. This army consisted of two regiments of regulars and supplemented by militia from sixteen districts across the Commonwealth. The two regiments were led by Colonel Patrick Henry, who had called for the colony to organize its defenses at the Second Virginia Convention, and Colonel William Woodford, who had fought with George Washington during the Seven Years' War (also known as the French and Indian War). Patrick Henry resigned, and during the autumn of 1775 Colonel Woodford led the patriot troops towards Norfolk, where Dunmore's men had been raiding. The patriots mustered in Williamsburg and engaged in several skirmishes with British forces, which included enslaved men who had been armed. After a British victory at Kemp’s Landing, Governor Dunmore issued a proclamation in November 1775 declaring that men enslaved by patriots would be freed if they joined his new Ethiopian Regiment. Ultimately, the American and British forces, including the Ethiopian Regiment, squared off at Great Bridge, which crossed the southern branch of the Elizabeth River about ten miles south of Norfolk. Late in November, the Virginia militia began building defenses on the south side of the bridge while Dunmore ordered the construction of a fort on the north. After several skirmishes, the British force attacked on December 9, 1775. They found themselves slowed by missing bridge planks that had been removed by patriot sentries, including Wiliam Flora, a free Black militia private. Crossing the bridge with six men abreast, the British were an easy target for the American troops who had built entrenchments from which to fire. Patriot forces mowed down the British regulars, and Loyalist militia refused to cross the bridge to meet the same fate. The patriots forced a British retreat to Norfolk. The British suffered heavy losses—almost half of its 120-soldier regiment was killed, captured, or wounded. It also strengthened patriot resolve, and showed the potential strength of the American military, which reported only one mildly injured soldier after the battle took place. Later on December 9, Colonel Woodford wrote this letter to the president of the Third Virginia Convention and described the battle as he witnessed it. Citation: Letter of William Woodford, Dec. 9, 1775, Virginia. Convention (1775: Dec. 1-1776 Jan. 20), Accession 30003, Library of Virginia (<a href="https://lva.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01LVA_INST/altrmk/alma990016437420205756">available online in the Virginia Revolutionary Conventions Digital Collection</a>) Standards VS.5, USI.6, VUS.5 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Scan It: Look at the document. What words stand out to you, and why? What do you think of his description of the British regulars vs. the Loyalist and Ethiopian regiments? Post-Activities Be the Journalist: Imagine you are interviewing Colonel William Woodford for a story in the Virginia Gazette. What three questions would you ask him, and why? How would you write the story? What would you tell your readers about this incident, and what conclusions would you draw? Draw It: Based on Colonel William Woodford’s descriptions, draw what you think the battle map would look like. Where would American and British troops be? What would the bridge look like? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Battle of Great Bridge, William Woodford Letter, 1775 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1775 Military History https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/2d950895586e5e20d2cc5b7ff0ab6f8a.jpg 4aa3dbc09658e584d14d1bd5f10ad642 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/2273b66190fc2d06743e795ed94c407e.pdf da45fa2699a1b6a30d70d98784805121 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/7a6ac8ed6143ea767c0d367eb18f83db.pdf e7d5730ffe60e6a3a3a0b1e5f69530ef Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Revolution and the New Nation Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1754-1820s Description An account of the resource The American Revolution is considered one of the most crucial times of United States history to study, as it lays the groundwork for all political history following it. Not only did it end the colonial relationship with England, but it brought about political change that shaped our lives and served as an example for other nations. It also called into question social and political relationships, raising questions regarding freedom and inalienable rights. Some of America’s most important documents and greatest political minds come from this era. The war itself also was revolutionary, with successful guerilla-style fighting and the defeat by colonials of well-trained British military forces. Following the war, the creation of the U.S. Constitution and the process of ratification shifted not only the style of government, but also the way in which governments functioned with an increased public investment. This process also called into question the balance of power between federal and state governments, an issue that continued to be present in American politics long after the Constitution and the Bill of Rights were completed. Despite strong unity among many in during the American Revolution, political, economic, regional, social, ideological, and religious tensions did not fade, and in some cases---especially with respect to slavery---increased as the United States sought to define itself. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a>. Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context In March 1775, the American colonies appeared to be on a path to war with Britain. Tensions increased over British treatment of Bostonians after Parliament passed the Coercive Acts (also known as the Intolerable Acts) in 1774. In Virginia, Governor Lord Dunmore had dissolved the House of Burgesses in January 1775 so that members could not meet to discuss recent actions. Virginia leaders called for a second convention to determine how the colony should respond to growing British aggression. A previous convention had met in August 1774 and had established a non-importation agreement to stop buying British goods. The Second Virginia Convention met from March 20 to March 27, 1775, in what is now known as St. John's Church, in Richmond. The elected delegates focused particularly on the fact that Dunmore had allowed a law mustering the militia to expire at a time when conflicts between the colonists and Indigenous peoples on Virginia's western frontier were escalating. A proposal from men in Fairfax County had recommended assembling the local militia and raising money for ammunition, something that only British-authorized legislative bodies had previously proposed. Hanover County delegate Patrick Henry presented a resolution to muster the militia for the colony's defense. While not going so far as proposing to raise taxes to fund this effort, his formal request to the convention was a step towards governance without British oversight. Many present worried that this was a step too far, and a vigorous debate over Henry’s resolution ensued. On March 23, Patrick Henry defended his call to arms with a dramatic speech to the convention, whose members included George Washington, Richard Henry Lee, and Thomas Jefferson. Henry argued that the British government had failed to respond satisfactorily to American petitions and requests over the previous decade and that it was time to face the truth that the time for reconciliation with the mother country had potentially passed. He emphasized that the standing British military troops in the colonies, with more on the way, did not bode well for peace. He closed with the famous words “I know not what course others may take; but as for me, give me liberty or give me death!” The convention passed Henry’s resolution by a narrow margin. Not even a month later, the first shots in the American Revolution were fired at Lexington in Massachusetts. Early in May, Henry marched on Williamsburg with his militia to demand the return of gunpowder Dunmore had taken from the magazine. Patrick Henry’s speech has been often repeated and memorialized, but it was not recorded at the time of the convention or during his lifetime. Instead, William Wirt reconstructed the speech in his 1817 biography of Henry. Wirt included the transcription by St. George Tucker, who had related the speech to Wirt in an 1805 letter that has since been lost. By all accounts, Wirt was a careful researcher who tried to corroborate his material. He may have consulted others who had been present, such as Edmund Randolph, who had a strong positive reaction to the speech but did not at the time record Henry’s words. Thomas Jefferson also read a copy of Wirt’s biography and presumably may have called out any inaccuracies. Patrick Henry's exact words remain unknown on that fateful day when the Virginia convention determined to arm the commonwealth in defense against potential British aggression. His actions, however, helped to chart Virginia’s revolutionary course, and these words have become ingrained in American popular history and culture. Citation: Excerpt from March 23, 1775, speech in William Wirt, Sketches of the Life and Character of Patrick Henry, 2d ed. (1818), pp. 122─123, Special Collections, Library of Virginia. Related Document Bank entries: <a href="https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/items/show/315">Call for a Convention to Meet in Williamsburg, 1774</a> <a href="https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/items/show/314">Proclamation Against Patrick Henry, 1775</a> <a href="https://www.historicstjohnschurch.org/2nd-virginia-convention" target="_blank" title="this link opens in a new tab" rel="noreferrer noopener">Learn more about the Second Virginia Convention at St. John's Church</a>. <a href="https://lva.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/discovery/collectionDiscovery?vid=01LVA_INST:01LVA&collectionId=81164609780005756&lang=en">See records from the Virginia Revolutionary Conventions, 1774─1776</a> in our Digital Collections Discovery. <a href="https://uncommonwealth.lva.virginia.gov//blog/2024/02/07/virginia-revolutionary-conventions/">Learn more about these records</a> in The UncommonWealth blog. <a href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027/loc.ark:/13960/t1hh6z54x?urlappend=%3Bseq=141" target="_blank" title="this link opens in a new tab" rel="noreferrer noopener">Read Henry's entire speech</a> in the Sketches of the Life and Character of Patrick Henry (pp. 119-123) online at HathiTrust. Standards VS.6, USI.6, VUS.5 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Analyze: Read through the speech. What reasons does Henry give for his argument that Virginia needed to arm itself against the British? How does he try to persuade delegates who were reluctant to go this far? Post-Activities Dig Deeper: Read the Document Bank entry of the <a href="https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/items/show/314">Proclamation of Dunmore against Patrick Henry</a>. Given what actions Henry took before and after the Second Virginia Convention, do you believe he said these famous words in this speech? Why or why not, and what evidence supports/disputes the claim that he made the speech? Political Plans: Imagine you are a politician who disagrees with Henry’s arguments. How would you try to convince others to vote against creating an independent Virginia militia? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Give Me Liberty or Give Me Death, Patrick Henry Speech, 1775 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1775 Government and Civics https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/c22f721e0cf325bff8b57a7a41ea834a.jpg cf5c04accb2a1c3d70df51ecb3a2f733 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/fae5906d797abb0466641fe4cc1ebb31.jpg 260f274ad69a88433dab659c8b42e215 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/363a5dc3bb2bc8d027490aa0dd7ab167.jpg 9f21e4a7019edc2959aba3cbb6ea086d https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/c7deb22bf7c74aa1085dfd45566565e0.pdf c9d1406f9f329b6d5dc4114e63ffaa48 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/6014c97d2d1bef11d40f96713c0cda10.pdf 4c44a0e017d4c8d5b2360b9625e7776f Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Postwar United States Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1945 - 1970s Description An account of the resource The era following World War II brought about vast changes, not only in foreign policy, but in economics and a changing civic landscape. The liberalism of the New Deal era grew into movements towards increasing civil liberties and economic opportunities, particularly for underrepresented communities and women. Protests became more common as groups demanded equal rights and voting equality. These movements were juxtaposed with Jim Crow laws and the reemergence of the Ku Klux Klan. The Cold War pitted the United States and its allies in NATO against the Soviet Union and other communist nations, particularly China, Korea, and Vietnam. During this period campaigns were fought not only on the battleground, but in the political arena and social consciousness as well. The fall of the Nazi regime opened the door to the Iron Curtain and Soviet dominance of Eastern Europe. Through the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan the U.S. sought to halt the spread of communism further west. The defeat of Japan enabled previously occupied counties the chance to choose new leaders, many of whom sided with communism over capitalism. The United States would spend much of this period adhering to the “Domino Theory” foreign policy to contain the spread of communism. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a> Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context After the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education (1954) that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional, Virginia resisted desegregating its schools for years. One tactic was the creation of a state Pupil Placement Board to assign (or place) students in public schools, a task formerly under the control of local school boards. In this way the Commonwealth could limit how many Black or multiracial students would be enrolled in previously all-white schools. This document is the application submitted in 1963 by Thelma L. Branham, a member of the Monacan tribe, to place her daughter in Amherst Elementary School. Like other Indigenous Virginians, members of the Monacan nation occupied a tenuous space in the racial hierarchy of Virginia. When the General Assembly created the segregated public school system in 1870, Virginia Indians were left out of the system entirely. Some could “pass” as white and attend white schools, but they were generally expected to attend the Black schools established at the time. Like other Indigenous citizens, Monacans reacted by creating their own institutions. In 1924, with the passage of the Racial Integrity Act, Virginia Indians like the Monacan were virtually erased from public records, as the law deemed everyone in Virginia a Black person if they had one drop of nonwhite blood. The Monacans built a one-room schoolhouse for their children on Bear Mountain, in Amherst County. This school served children through seventh grade. Public officials treated the Monacan school as they did other nonwhite schools; it received less financial support and had part-time teachers supplied by the county on an irregular basis. In 1907, the Episcopal Church established a mission there. The diocese supplied full-time teachers for the school, which was enlarged to two rooms and was eventually electrified. However, Monacan students wanting classes beyond eighth grade had to take them through correspondence classes or leave the state to attend high school. Although the school board began supplying full-time teachers by 1940, this 1953 article ("Sanitation Report Made") in the Amherst New Era-Progress reported that the Monacan school was one of many in the county in terrible condition, suffering from overcrowding and sanitation problems due to its lack of running water. Most of the white schools in the county—all but two—were deemed adequate, but sixteen Black schools and the Monacan school were not as a result of neglect by the local school board. Monacans were subject to the same prejudicial laws as Black citizens, including the state's massive resistance to desegregation. In 1963, Amherst County tried to build a new, larger school with a high school for the Monacans, which was one of the ways the state tried to maintain segregation. Instead, Bear Mountain Mission School closed and Monacan students had to navigate the complicated and lengthy process created by the Pupil Placement Board to attend white schools. This 1964 article ("4-Room Addition Approved By Board") in the New Era-Progress explained where the students were transfered to and describes the Monacan students with the offensive term "issue." Originating as term for free Black people during slavery, "free issue" was later used by Walter Placker, State Board of Health Registrar and architect of the 1924 law, to describe Indigenous Virginians, who he viewed as vastly inferior to whites. It was not until 1970 that all Amherst county schools integrated. The Bear Mountain Mission school is now the Monacan Nation’s Museum. Citations: County Transfers, Amherst-Approved, 1963 (box 40), Records of the Virginia Pupil Placement Board, 1957-1966, Accession 26517, Library of Virginia; "Sanitation Report on Schools Made," Amherst New Era-Progress, <a href="https://virginiachronicle.com/?a=d&d=ANE19531029.1.1">Oct. 29, 1953</a>; "Four-Room Addition Approved by Board," Amherst New Era-Progress, <a href="https://virginiachronicle.com/?a=d&d=ANE19640709.1.1">July 9, 1964</a>, Library of Virginia. Related Document Bank entry: <a href="https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/items/show/226">The New Virginia Law to Preserve Racial Integrity, March 1924</a> <a href="https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/monacan-indian-nation/">Learn more about the Monacan Nation online at Encyclopedia Virginia.</a> <a href="https://uncommonwealth.virginiamemory.com/blog/2013/09/04/what-did-you-learn-in-school-today-the-records-of-the-virginia-pupil-placement-board/">Learn more about the Pupil Placement Board records in The UncommonWealth blog.</a> Standards VS.8, VS.10, VS.11, USII.2, USII.5, USII.8, VUS.8, VUS.16 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Scan It: Scan the articles for information. What schools were described as inadequate? Which ones were not? Why do you think some of the schools were in worse condition than others? Post Activities Analyze: Read the newspaper articles and the pupil placement application. Why did Mrs. Branham want her daughter to go to a different school? What problems did she point out? What opportunities did she see elsewhere? How did the reports from the school sanitation committee support her arguments about the mission school? Current Connection: How would you characterize the condition of your school, and why? What could you do about it? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Monacan Education and the Pupil Placement Board, Amherst County, 1963 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1963 American Indian History https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/6c1118241203eee8e57b334de903ce91.jpg 249c487fee514a0aaf0cdfbc452d978f https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/4343500fa6cf2f9c4b659b7312bed63a.jpg 0b6d893c84bd1c935436cb5f2cabbd67 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/4e43d5c8a7ea644a3a3de7071675574f.jpg 3eed21dc7c8a7fcd2884abf9bbc03f66 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/7087b8c44bc180dabe97a3cfddd28347.pdf fcb002bf9d722701a713efa176848283 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Description An account of the resource Beyond the toll it took on the nation, the Great Depression helped to shape modern-day America, especially in expanding the role of government in citizens' everyday lives. The circumstances of the Depression spurred President Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal initiatives that included the Works Progress Administration, Civilian Conservation Corps, Farm Security Administration, and the Social Security Administration to assist the unemployed, farmers, and the elderly. World War II helped not only to bring the nation out of the Depression, but also put the United States on the world stage as a superpower. Unlike previous administrations, both Roosevelt and President Harry S. Truman placed the United States on a path to leadership in worldwide conflicts and reform movements. The war changed the role of women as they entered the workforce while American men went to war. Events such as the bombing at Pearl Harbor, liberation of concentration camps, the use of atomic bombs, and the rise of the Soviet Union as a superpower shaped future American foreign policy. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a> Title A name given to the resource The Great Depression and World War II Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1929 - 1945 Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context The legislation authorizing Virginia’s first statewide public school system in 1870 required that schools be racially segregated. The U.S. Supreme Court’s decision in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) upheld southern segregation laws as long as facilities were “separate but equal.” Public education throughout Virginia and other southern states was certainly separate, but it was far from equal. Rural schools often revealed the most stark disparities. Hampered by a general lack of state funding, white local officials were reluctant to adequately support educational facilities for Black students. Amelia County was typical of rural school districts in the Commonwealth. The annual reports published by the Virginia Superintendent of Public Instruction illustrate the inequalities. These documents are excerpts from the published tables documenting the number of public school teachers and their salaries in 1930–1931. According to the annual report, the school-age population (ages 7 to 19) in Amelia County was 59% Black. However, the schools for Black students were funded at a significantly smaller amount. White students could attend Amelia County High School (built in 1911), but African American students had no similar facility until 1933, which is reflected in the annual report's census of teachers that records no high school teachers in Amelia. Teacher salaries also reflected the race and gender hierarchy in Virginia. Black teachers were paid less than white teachers, even when they had more experience and education. The average salary in Amelia County for white elementary teachers was $620, while Black teachers—all women in Amelia—averaged only $412. In the 1930s and 1940s, Black teachers in some Virginia localities filed lawsuits to equalize salaries that gradually led to improvements in teachers' pay. Citation: Tables excerpted from the Annual Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction of the Commonwealth of Virginia with Accompanying Documents, School Year 1930–1931 (1932). Related Document Bank entry: <a href="https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/items/show/321">Segregation in Amelia County Schools, Newspaper articles</a> <a href="https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/oc/stc/entries/aline-black-fought-for-equal-pay-for-african-american-teachers-1938">For information on teacher salary equalization, see Aline Black fought for Equal Pay for African American Teachers, 1938 in Shaping the Constitution.</a> Suggested Questions Preview Activity Scan It: Choose a county on the Teacher Census page. What stands out to you about the numbers? Post-Activities Map It: Print out the <a href="https://www.doe.virginia.gov/home/showpublisheddocument/36797/638059683694130000">Geographic Regions with Counties Map</a> from the Department of Education website. Find your city/county and surrounding counties. Using the data from the Teacher Census in the 1930 State Superintendent’s Annual Report (<a href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015076553497?urlappend=%3Bseq=162%3Bownerid=13510798892551337-168">find all localities on pp. 160-163 in the report online at HathiTrust</a>), shade the counties green that offered high school classes to African American students in 1930. On the map, shade the counties red that did not offer high school classes to African American students. What stands out to you? Dig Deeper: Find Virginia population data in the <a href="https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1930/population-volume-3/10612982v3p2ch10.pdf">1930 census</a> (data by county/city begins on p. 1161 of the linked document). Look at the numbers of white and Black inhabitants in your county/city. Compare these numbers to the <a href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015076553497?urlappend=%3Bseq=162%3Bownerid=13510798892551337-168">Census of Teachers</a> in the Superintendent of Public Instruction's annual report for 1930. What does this suggest about the equality of educational opportunities in your county/city or the entire state at that time? Standards VS.8, VS.10, VS.11, USII.2, USII.5, USII.8, VUS.8. VUS.16 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Virginia Superintendent of Public Instruction Report, Teacher Census Excerpt, 1930 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1930 African American History https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/d63a3a0521e3b3b7f9bc6c7ed40f51ef.jpg bfb340cdf959a07d77458e726f5fd582 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/de31d1c5ae5afe159ad8dbd182180caa.pdf 492bee6e57c32832bab34179850399f9 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/769de120780469113b440873670cabb2.pdf 6a0092ee4a54d037a9bba4c762b10c44 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Description An account of the resource Beyond the toll it took on the nation, the Great Depression helped to shape modern-day America, especially in expanding the role of government in citizens' everyday lives. The circumstances of the Depression spurred President Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal initiatives that included the Works Progress Administration, Civilian Conservation Corps, Farm Security Administration, and the Social Security Administration to assist the unemployed, farmers, and the elderly. World War II helped not only to bring the nation out of the Depression, but also put the United States on the world stage as a superpower. Unlike previous administrations, both Roosevelt and President Harry S. Truman placed the United States on a path to leadership in worldwide conflicts and reform movements. The war changed the role of women as they entered the workforce while American men went to war. Events such as the bombing at Pearl Harbor, liberation of concentration camps, the use of atomic bombs, and the rise of the Soviet Union as a superpower shaped future American foreign policy. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a> Title A name given to the resource The Great Depression and World War II Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1929 - 1945 Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context Virginia did not have a statewide system of public schools until after the Civil War. Before this, private academies and common schools were all that existed, but the Virginia General Assembly did authorize a “literary fund” that supplied counties with a limited amount of funding to educate white children whose parents could not afford to do so. For many Virginians, education was illegal because providing instruction to African Americans, whether slave or free, violated the law. During the convention that met in 1867–1868 to write a new state constitution, Black and white delegates authorized the creation of a public school system. One of the delegates was John Robinson, a free Black entrepreneur before the Civil War who rose to prominence in Cumberland and Amelia Counties as a landowner, enslaver, and tradesman. Elected to the State Senate in 1869, he served on the Committee on Public Institutions, which wrote the law establishing the new school system. Despite the protests of Black legislators, the law required that the public schools be racially segregated. For decades, schools for Black students were funded at a far lower rate than those for white students. Black parents often had to raise money themselves to acquire land, build schools, and pay teachers. As was the case in many other counties in Virginia, Black students in Amelia County did not have a school to attend after the elementary grades. In the 1920s, the county's Board of Education instituted a Training School for Black students in grades one through nine, but the school operated for only a few years. It was not until 1933 that Black students in Amelia County could attend high school. These newspaper articles published in the Southside Virginia News and the Richmond Times-Dispatch describe the efforts by Amelia County’s Black community to open a high school for their children, which included purchasing the land and paying for part of the building's construction. Classes first met at Russell Grove Presbyterian Church, and in 1935 the Russell Grove High School building was completed. It was not until 1969 that Russell Grove desegregated. John Robinson's family exemplified his belief in the importance of education. His son John W. Robinson was an advocate for establishing a high school for Black students. His daughter-in-law Lettie Robinson used her own car to transport students and is recognized Russell Grove's first bus driver. The first graduating class in 1937 included John and Lettie's daughter, Sarah (Sallie) Courtny Robinson, who was the school’s first valedictorian, as well as Lettie Robinson's granddaughter, Virginia Walton, who later became a teacher. Citations: "26 Negroes Finish Amelia High School," Virginia Southside News, May 20, 1937, Library of Virginia, <a href="https://virginiachronicle.com/?a=d&d=SVNS19370520.1.14">online at Virginia Chronicle</a>. and "Woman Still Makes Quilts as her Grandmother Did," Richmond Times-Dispatch, Dec. 28, 1955. Related Document Bank entry: <a href="https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/items/show/322">Virginia Superintendent of Public Instruction, Teacher Census Except, 1930</a> <a href="https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/robinson-john-1825-or-1826-1908/">Learn more about John Robinson</a> in his Dictionary of Virginia Biography entry online at Encyclopedia Virginia. <a href="https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/public-school-system-in-virginia-establishment-of-the/">Learn more about the Establishment of the Public School System in Virginia</a> at Encyclopedia Virginia. Standards VS.7, VS.8, USII.2, USII.3, VUS.9, VUS.10 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Scan it: Scan the articles for numbers. What information stands out to you? Why? Post Activities Think about it: The amount of money raised by the Black community may not seem like much today, but go to the <a href="https://www.measuringworth.com/calculators/uscompare/" target="_blank" title="this link opens in a new tab" rel="noreferrer noopener">Measuring Worth website</a> and plug in the dollar amounts mentioned in the articles. The purchasing power of the amount in today's dollars is rendered in several ways, including "as spent on a construction project." What is the equivalent cost for the amount that you entered? How do you think the Black community raised that amount of money? How much of an undertaking would that have been? What do you think the county was doing with the tax money paid by these families? Dig Deeper: Read about the creation of the Jeanes Teachers program in the <a href="https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/dillard-j-h-1856-1940/">Dictionary of Virginia Biography entry of J. H. Dillard online at Encyclopedia Virginia</a>. What was the program's connection with Virginia? How important do you think the Jeanes program was to the Black community in Amelia County, and why? How can you gauge the impact of the program on Black communities across the state? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Segregated Schools in Amelia County, Newspaper articles Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1937 African American History