6 10 232 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/6fbbb47a1e70705e8114555cb705a2f2.jpg 861e989da1a58ce4b4e9ee0df9534f38 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/4839370cca06e9e50e5c5a2acbdd532c.jpg 665b64399b60e52eafdce7aee9cb7422 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/98c4d97adef988da504a6bc3fbd9b27f.pdf c113bcefbadebbd300bd4a13394c7d36 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/65f49dffeba09a8d342874b5482f4a27.pdf 6ea378e73b55a263713a31cadc278bc2 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Expansion and Reform Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1800-1860 Description An account of the resource Between 1800 and 1860, the United States underwent a period of increased territorial growth, immigration, economic growth, and industrialization. At the same time as the nation was increasing in population and size, regional differences were becoming more and more pronounced, and politically confrontational. The idea of Manifest Destiny led to expansion first across the Appalachians, then across the Mississippi, and finally to the Pacific Ocean. Vast swaths of land were aquired via the Louisiana Purchase from France and through the United States’s victory in the Mexican-American War. This expansion, however, did have some negative results, most notably the removal of many Indian nations in the Southeast and old Northwest. Economic development, while increasing wealth and prosperity, also brought regional differences more sharply into focus. Northeastern industrial development, increased urbanization, and technological advancements separated it even further from the agrarian South. There was also a transportation revolution involving railroads, canals, and trans-regional roads, many times centered in the North. The issue of slavery caused increasing strife and political debate as new western territories sought to join the Union. Despite expansion, free African Americans and women were still largely disfranchised. Reforms movements related to temperence, women's rights, education, mental health, and imprisonment occurred in bursts, setting the stage for post-Civil War major reforms. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a>. Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context Virginia's economy was based on slavery until the Civil War and emancipation. In 1860, Virginia was home to 500,000 enslaved people, more than any other state. Although most Virginians were not enslavers, farmers and planters used enslaved laborers to work their land. Many businesses, including railroads, coal mines, tobacco factories, and saltworks, also exploited enslaved laborers. Urban residents relied on enslaved men and women to cook, clean, and care for their households. White Virginians who did not own slaves sometimes hired enslaved laborers from their owners to work for them. Richmond was the second-largest slave market in the country, and banks, insurance companies, and even hotels benefited from the sale of enslaved people. Some enslaved people attempted to escape from the harsh conditions of slavery, and Virginia's General Assembly passed numerous laws to hinder escapes and to require the return of escaped slaves to their owners. A 1705 act offered rewards for the capture of escaped slaves, punished them by whipping, and punished local officials who allowed an enslaved person to escape. If the owner of an escaped slave could not be found, later laws authorized jailers to hire out the enslaved person with an "iron collar" around their neck and to sell them at public auction. This record was created in Kanawha County (now part of West Virginia) in 1834 and filed in the county court in 1835. William Albright was one of three who escaped and after their capture, were held at the county jail. The county appointed commissioners to assess the value of the enslaved people in order to recover the costs the county paid to confine them in jail. William Albright was valued at $50, which was considered insufficient to pay for his confinement. By order of the court, the sheriff sold William Albright at the courthouse door in September 1834. What happened to him afterwards is unknown. Records such as these illustrate some of the dangers faced by enslaved men and women who tried to free themselves by escaping. Citation: William Albright Etc., Runaway Slave Record, Kanawha County [West Virginia], 1835, Accession APA 759, Library of Virginia. <a href="https://virginiamemory.com/collections/aan/aan_record_types.pdf?v=3.0" target="_blank" title="link opens in a new tab" rel="noreferrer noopener">Learn more about the Library's collection of Runaway Slaves Records here (p. 15–16).</a> <a href="https://encyclopediavirginia.org/runaway-slaves-2/" target="_blank" title="link opens in a new tab" rel="noreferrer noopener">Listen to historian Tom Costa discuss the punishments faced by runaway slaves in this excerpt (3:10 min) from With Good Reason online at Encyclopedia Virginia.</a> Standards VS.7, USI.9, VUS.8 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Analyze: Create a hypothesis about the purpose of this document. Post-Activities Form an Opinion: After reading this document, form an opinion about what transpired. What do you base your opinion on? Explain using at least two examples from the document. Think About It: What are three things you learned about William Albright from this document? Another Perspective: Imagine you are an abolitionist opposed to slavery. How might you use this document to support your position? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource William Albright, Runaway Slave Record, Kanawha County, 1834 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1834 African American History https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/a3c30e2ddb265539d6b339f38adb81d9.jpg 62dc1436ed265698af7274cd22d33edd https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/a5c1425dcb0ebee4ce04603c0088e26d.jpg 04dd9798e974c43e4be8ec714e00d84b https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/b9de281bc618bb46b5c2c857fa5bc417.jpg 608434a377519dc61509945ba4dde597 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/19a00d13827e715931ab19e8a88de70d.jpg 324a1fb3dd8497089e08f46740a6719f https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/8d8aea4bb621a9b2214ee4228657f721.pdf 1090bf6c9f19cb5710129535538708bb https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/fe60784ad6e5879a95f40198946aef1e.pdf 490eec5da44945cb3f40c43b8435d260 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Expansion and Reform Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1800-1860 Description An account of the resource Between 1800 and 1860, the United States underwent a period of increased territorial growth, immigration, economic growth, and industrialization. At the same time as the nation was increasing in population and size, regional differences were becoming more and more pronounced, and politically confrontational. The idea of Manifest Destiny led to expansion first across the Appalachians, then across the Mississippi, and finally to the Pacific Ocean. Vast swaths of land were aquired via the Louisiana Purchase from France and through the United States’s victory in the Mexican-American War. This expansion, however, did have some negative results, most notably the removal of many Indian nations in the Southeast and old Northwest. Economic development, while increasing wealth and prosperity, also brought regional differences more sharply into focus. Northeastern industrial development, increased urbanization, and technological advancements separated it even further from the agrarian South. There was also a transportation revolution involving railroads, canals, and trans-regional roads, many times centered in the North. The issue of slavery caused increasing strife and political debate as new western territories sought to join the Union. Despite expansion, free African Americans and women were still largely disfranchised. Reforms movements related to temperence, women's rights, education, mental health, and imprisonment occurred in bursts, setting the stage for post-Civil War major reforms. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a>. Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context Commonwealth causes are criminal cases filed by a county's prosecuting attorney (commonwealth's attorney) against individuals who violate Virginia law. Prior to the abolition of slavery in Virginia in 1865, criminal offenders and victims included both free and enslaved persons. Punishment was often based on race and social status, with enslaved and free African Americans receiving harsher punishments than white offenders. Free Black men and women could be sold into slavery as punishment for a crime, which was never the case for white men or women convicted of a crime. In this commonwealth cause, the Accomack County court summoned a free Black woman named Phillis (no surname recorded) to face the charge that she had remained in Virginia for more than a year after she had been emancipated. An 1806 law passed by Virginia's General Assembly required people who had been freed from slavery after that date to leave the state within twelve months or face re-enslavement. The law was one of several intended to address concerns of white Virginians who feared that the presence of too many free Black people would incite enslaved men and women to violence. Phillis had been enslaved by a woman named Mary Outten, who had freed Phillis and several other enslaved people at the time of her death on October 28, 1822. Phillis was one of more than forty other freed men and women who lived in Accomack County who were summoned to the county court between 1823 and 1825 after a grand jury presented an indictment that allowing "free negroes" to remain in the county in spite of the 1806 law was "a public evil." A grand jury presented (or indicted) Phillis on March 29, 1824, for remaining in Virginia. It is not clear whether Phillis ever appeared in court. In April 1825 the county discontinued the prosecution against Phillis and the other free men and women who had been criminally charged. What happened to her afterwards is not known. Citation: Selected pages from Phillis [by Outten], 1824, and Phillis Outten, 1824, Commonwealth Causes, Accomack County Commonwealth Causes, 1815–1863, Library of Virginia. Vocabulary Summons – issued by a court to call a suspected person, witness, or victim to appear in court to provide evidence Indictment – official, written description of the crime that an accused individual is suspected of committing, which is approved by a grand jury and presented to a court in an order also known as “presentments.” Standards VS.7, USI.9, VUS.7, VUS.8 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Scan It: Scan the documents to look for phrases or words that stand out. What do they tell you about the documents? Post-Activities Be the Journalist: You are a journalist interviewing Phillis. What are three questions you would ask her? Think About It: Why might Virginia law have required freed people to leave the state? How could this law have affected emancipated people and their families, members of whom might remain in slavery? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Phillis, Commonwealth Cause, Accomack County, 1824 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1824 African American History Women's History https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/be0529a633603fd88f555a89830b6b24.jpg fb6c1e214080fc1be996a2c42f8a3e06 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/cf75e258975cc34005066222439657a4.jpg 9d746ed168a42313531874c1b730051f https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/3a687eeb23b83a3cb7c321e804ba2990.pdf 1d1b8fe512c7f83f3bf688283ebb866c Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Postwar United States Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1945 - 1970s Description An account of the resource The era following World War II brought about vast changes, not only in foreign policy, but in economics and a changing civic landscape. The liberalism of the New Deal era grew into movements towards increasing civil liberties and economic opportunities, particularly for underrepresented communities and women. Protests became more common as groups demanded equal rights and voting equality. These movements were juxtaposed with Jim Crow laws and the reemergence of the Ku Klux Klan. The Cold War pitted the United States and its allies in NATO against the Soviet Union and other communist nations, particularly China, Korea, and Vietnam. During this period campaigns were fought not only on the battleground, but in the political arena and social consciousness as well. The fall of the Nazi regime opened the door to the Iron Curtain and Soviet dominance of Eastern Europe. Through the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan the U.S. sought to halt the spread of communism further west. The defeat of Japan enabled previously occupied counties the chance to choose new leaders, many of whom sided with communism over capitalism. The United States would spend much of this period adhering to the “Domino Theory” foreign policy to contain the spread of communism. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a> Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context On May 17, 1954, the United States Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional. Virginia's school system had been segregated since it was established in 1870, and had been protected by the Supreme Court's 1896 decision in Plessy v. Ferguson that segregation did not violate an individual's equal protection under the law as guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment so long as accommodations were equal. For decades the doctrine of "separate but equal" enabled Virginia and other southern states to segregate their citizens. In the unanimous Brown v. Board ruling, Chief Justice Earl Warren described segregated schools as "inherently unequal," overturning the precedent set by the 1896 decision. The announcement of the Supreme Court’s decision brought about many reactions from the people of Virginia. There were those who responded with great joy, seeing this as a hard won victory for African Americans and a chance to advance equality. For others, the Court's decision brought about a sense of fear and uncertainty. Newspaper editors reflected these varied reactions. In the Journal and Guide, Norfolk's African American weekly newspaper, P. B. Young described the Brown decision as "a great victory" that affirmed the "unconstitutionality of racial discrimination" in America. Segregationist James J. Kilpatrick, editor of the Richmond News Leader, acknowledged that white Virginians would have to accept the ruling in some form, but stressed that "this is no time for a weak surrender" of the state's right to control its public schools. Citations: P. B. Young, "Time for Wise, Prudent Action," Norfolk Journal and Guide, May 22, 1954, p. 1, and James J. Kilpatrick, "The Decision," Richmond News Leader, May 18, 1954, p. 10. Standards VS.11, USII.8, CE.6, CE.7, CE.9, VUS.16, VUS.17, GOVT.10, GOVT.11 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Scan It: Scan the two editorials. What words or phrases stand out to you in each? Explain why. Post Activities Looking at Language: Look at the language used in both editorials. What does it tell you about the person writing each of the editorials? What does it tell you about the audience of the editorials? Form an Opinion: After reading the two editorials, form an opinion about why the reactions to the Brown v Board of Education decision differ? Use evidence from each article to support your opinion. Dig Deeper: Using the Library of Virginia's online newspaper database, <a href="https://virginiachronicle.com/" target="_blank" title="This link opens in a new window." rel="noreferrer noopener">Virginia Chronicle</a>, look at other newspapers in the days after the Supreme Court decision. How did editors respond in other parts of the state? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Two Virginia Newspapers Respond to the Supreme Court's Brown v. Board of Education Decision, May 1954 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1954 African American History https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/e87313b4b50488ea4b72a392c65bc806.jpg ff2341b49cdb922cc1b8f7454d4429a8 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/2d6d376f71d26b70e68561ece45ae0a9.mp3 1c30165ff5f45b2b0c98dcb214881cc2 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/6bbf5692a87ab57455a20eae6c92786e.pdf 1126c82161bec703cdf1b79a0d9a341b https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/4d6b1c654fefbff4c6b1556850f0ffe2.pdf 853bdf3b9422218ee5c8aed044f44a4a https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/b3658a5dd232b33059c425370e612de4.jpg d4d44520ed8a372d94443ff3add42d15 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/2f879709eb211ac55c49b84aad6a973d.jpg 0da75e3cb48c3b011368a0a17f5639f7 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/188611452e2354a1774bba75b20c2241.jpg 363360a9ccf19131da2467a172813097 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/0e1d274eccf486d1963ae48a9c91c075.jpg feaba943ea809bfb21ae3bac0a676d1f https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/515a4c08f783c0644cb7025c5fbe20ac.jpg b6dd8d290143f417de73c40c4580ed28 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/1f79485a59edad46854fce6c799e43ac.jpg c8af64f3056e6ba8d34077a85e6dc828 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/063b4e5ddea75895dbcdb85bc6a377b3.jpg 1e6f929a7528b276b1c2837803e163c3 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Postwar United States Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1945 - 1970s Description An account of the resource The era following World War II brought about vast changes, not only in foreign policy, but in economics and a changing civic landscape. The liberalism of the New Deal era grew into movements towards increasing civil liberties and economic opportunities, particularly for underrepresented communities and women. Protests became more common as groups demanded equal rights and voting equality. These movements were juxtaposed with Jim Crow laws and the reemergence of the Ku Klux Klan. The Cold War pitted the United States and its allies in NATO against the Soviet Union and other communist nations, particularly China, Korea, and Vietnam. During this period campaigns were fought not only on the battleground, but in the political arena and social consciousness as well. The fall of the Nazi regime opened the door to the Iron Curtain and Soviet dominance of Eastern Europe. Through the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan the U.S. sought to halt the spread of communism further west. The defeat of Japan enabled previously occupied counties the chance to choose new leaders, many of whom sided with communism over capitalism. The United States would spend much of this period adhering to the “Domino Theory” foreign policy to contain the spread of communism. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a> Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context In 1896 the United States Supreme Court ruled in Plessy v. Ferguson that racial segregation did not violate the "equal protection of the laws" clause of the <a href="https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/online-classroom/stc/units/the-fourteenth-amendment">Fourteenth Amendment</a>. Virginia and other southern states employed the doctrine of "separate but equal" to enforce segregation in public places, including schools. Schools for Black students never received equal funding from cities and counties in the commonwealth, and their facilities were inferior. On May 17, 1954 the United States Supreme Court ruled in <a href="https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/online-classroom/stc/units/education">Brown v Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas</a> that segregation in schools violated the Fourteenth Amendment and was therefore unconstitutional. In fact, the Supreme Court established that separate facilities were "inherently unequal," no matter the state or condition of the segregated school. Initially Governor Thomas B. Stanley reacted cautiously to the Supreme Court's ruling and spoke of his plan to meet with white and Black leaders to determine how to carry out integration in Virginia's schools. However, he quickly succumbed to pressure to resist school integration from U.S. Senator <a href="https://old.lva.virginia.gov/public/dvb/bio.asp?b=Byrd_Harry_Flood_1887-1966">Harry F. Byrd</a>, white community organizations such as the Defenders of State Sovereignty and Individual Liberties, and Richmond News Leader editor James J. Kilpatrick, who publicly argued that the state had a right to "interpose" itself between its citizens and the enforcement of federal laws including Supreme Court decisions. On August 27, 1956, Stanley spoke to a special session of the General Assembly. He urged the assembly members to pass legislation that would prevent schools in Virginia from integrating and to include provisions that would remove state funding from any school or school system that attempted to integrate. The General Assembly passed a law that denied state funding to any public schools where Black and white students were taught in the same classroom. It created a <a href="https://uncommonwealth.lva.virginia.gov//blog/2013/09/04/what-did-you-learn-in-school-today-the-records-of-the-virginia-pupil-placement-board/">pupil placement board</a> that forced all Black students to apply to attend white schools, which deliberately slowed down the integration process. In 1958 the governor closed schools in Charlottesville, Front Royal, and Norfolk when they attempted to integrate in violation of state law. These policies, collectively defined as "Massive Resistance," effectively thwarted any attempts at integration. These laws were overturned by the federal district court and the Virginia Supreme Court in January 1959, but school integration progressed slowly in Virginia. Prince Edward County officials closed public schools entirely for five years rather than integrate. Other school districts ignored court orders until the 1968 Supreme Court decision in Charles C. Green et al. v. County School Board of New Kent County, Virginia required localities to demonstrate actual progress in desegregating their schools. Even then, integration continued to proceed slowly and often only after a specific local court order was handed down. In this audio clip excerpted from his 1956 speech to the General Assembly, Governor Stanley claimed that the responses he received from Virginians from all walks of life unanimously supported the idea that integration should be prevented. However, Virginians who supported integration also wrote to the governor between 1954 and 1956. This group of selected letters to Stanley represent the many voices that were left unheard in his speech. Citations: Governor Thomas B. Stanley Speech Before a Special Session of the Virginia General Assembly, 27 August 1956 (WRVA-160), WRVA Radio Collection, Accession 38210, Library of Virginia. These recordings are for educational use and permission must be requested in writing from WRVA to reproduce any sound recordings. Excerpt is 4 minutes long. Letters in Governor Thomas B. Stanley Executive Papers, Accession 25184, Box 110 (Integration folders, 1954, 1955, 1956), State Government Records Collection, Library of Virginia. Find additional information about school desegregation and Massive Resistance in these related Document Bank entries: <a href="https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/items/show/207">Governor Stanley's Address to Virginians after the Supreme Court’s Brown v. Board of Education Decision, May 17, 1954</a> <a href="https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/items/show/206">Interposition and Massive Resistance, 1955</a> <a href="https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/items/show/202">Lindsay Almond School Integration Speech, January 20, 1959</a> <a href="https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/items/show/204">Robert Kennedy, Visit to Prince Edward County Schools, May 11, 1964</a> Learn more about <a href="https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/massive-resistance/">Massive Resistance</a> in Encyclopedia Virginia. Standards VS.11, USII.8, CE.6, CE.7, CE.9, VUS.16, VUS.17, GOVT.10, GOVT.11 Goals and Guiding Principles Students will be able to explain the social and political events resulting from the Brown v. Board decision. They will be able to identify some of the goals of Massive Resistance. They will understand how some Virginians denounced Massive Resistance, and how those individuals participated in civic discourse with civility through expressing themselves in print to help bring an end to Massive Resistance. Students will understand the relationship between state and local governments, and how civil rights were protected by the courts and ultimately by federal law. Suggested Questions Timeline Plotting (15 minutes) VS, USII, CE Plot a timeline using the events of desegregation and massive resistance found at Encyclopedia Virginia's entry on Desegregation in Public Schools (<a href="https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/desegregation-in-public-schools/">https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/desegregation-in-public-schools/</a>) and incorporate Stanley's speech and the letters you have read. What do you think about the length of time between the events? Given the fact that those in favor of desegregation did not have immediate success, do you think their efforts were valuable? Why or why not? Decision Making (15 minutes) USII, CE, VUS, GOVT These individuals all wrote letters to the governor to share their opinions about school desegregation. What other actions could they have taken to help promote the court-ordered desegregation of the schools? What efforts, if any, do you think may have had a more immediate effect, and why? Is there anything in these letters that you would have included? Why or why not? Chart It (15 minutes) USII, CE, VUS, GOVT Make a table that includes the arguments made by letter writers. In subsequent columns, write down in which letter those arguments appear. How often do the same ideas/arguments occur, and why? Are there similarities between the people or organizations using the arguments, and if so, what are they? What does that tell you about how people were talking and thinking about desegregation at the time? How do these letters challenge what the governor said about Virginians in his speech? Example of the chart: <table> <tbody> <tr> <td> Argument A </td> <td> Letter from </td> <td> Letter from </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> Argument B </td> <td> Letter from </td> <td> Letter from </td> <td> Letter from </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> Exit Ticket (10 minutes) USII, CE, VUS, GOVT Fill in the rest of these statements: After listening to/reading the governor’s speech and letters I learned _____________________. I was surprised by_______________________________. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Lesson Plan – School Desegregation and the Voices Not Heard, 1956 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1956 African American History Government and Civics https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/3dbd1f35c05fa6125a0af151a9ebd97a.jpg 47fbb06880037f1143f38a784068b0c2 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/dd5c6a187be11388474d1c9d54b4eeb3.jpg d4435b709485da035477eec279e9abe8 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/18fc84a79f2ad0689b8b464135487adf.jpg 446ed8b929b9ab6494e5cc5cedb24ac0 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/c7f09c6a104787759390fe5894e011a7.pdf a32bbb1fa556e6f6e858c7ae16c52f6e https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/3685b89359963c92cc1d7a91ce65cdfc.pdf 2c2021ba87c5dfc290c6a17dd0a8b5b7 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Expansion and Reform Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1800-1860 Description An account of the resource Between 1800 and 1860, the United States underwent a period of increased territorial growth, immigration, economic growth, and industrialization. At the same time as the nation was increasing in population and size, regional differences were becoming more and more pronounced, and politically confrontational. The idea of Manifest Destiny led to expansion first across the Appalachians, then across the Mississippi, and finally to the Pacific Ocean. Vast swaths of land were aquired via the Louisiana Purchase from France and through the United States’s victory in the Mexican-American War. This expansion, however, did have some negative results, most notably the removal of many Indian nations in the Southeast and old Northwest. Economic development, while increasing wealth and prosperity, also brought regional differences more sharply into focus. Northeastern industrial development, increased urbanization, and technological advancements separated it even further from the agrarian South. There was also a transportation revolution involving railroads, canals, and trans-regional roads, many times centered in the North. The issue of slavery caused increasing strife and political debate as new western territories sought to join the Union. Despite expansion, free African Americans and women were still largely disfranchised. Reforms movements related to temperence, women's rights, education, mental health, and imprisonment occurred in bursts, setting the stage for post-Civil War major reforms. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a>. Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context After a public notice appeared in a Richmond newspaper in October 1842 that a petition would be presented to the Virginia General Assembly to sell King William County property known as "Indian town lands," members of the Pamunkey tribe took action. Three "Chief Men of the Tribe" drafted their own petitions, which were presented to the House of Delegates on January 21, 1843, the day after white King William County residents had submitted their petition for the sale of Pamunkey land. In their petition dated November 26, 1842 they argued, "we the said Tribe do hereby solemnly and positively object" to the proposal. They denied that tribal members committed criminal acts against "our white neighbor" and objected to the claim that they were lazy. They noted that they were in fact successful farmers who could also support themselves through fishing and hunting "without any expence to the country." They responded to accusations that residents were no longer Pamunkey as a result of intermarriage with free Blacks, stating that "there are many here that are more than one half blooded Indian," although not everyone residing there was a member of the tribe. The petitioners reminded the assembly members that the land had been "granted to us by your fathers the son of liberty," and expressed their desire to eventually be buried "here with our ancestors." Being forced to leave their land, the tribal leaders concluded, was "against the will and wish of each one of our Tribe." In an additional petition dated January 12, 1843, the tribal leaders pointed out that the instigator of the petition to sell their land lived elsewhere in the county, and that he had falsely convinced county residents that the Pamunkey wanted to sell their lands while also slandering the character of the Pamunkey Indians. They stressed that none of their near neighbors "who know us well" signed the petition. These two petitions submitted to the Assembly by the Pamunkey were successful. In March 1843, the House of Delegates' Committee for Courts of Justice rejected the petition to sell the land. While most Virginia Indian tribes were forced to sell their land during the 18th and 19th centuries, the Pamunkey and the Mattaponi were able to retain their property as granted by treaties with the royal government during the 17th century. Citation: Pamunkey Indians Counter Petition, Jan. 21, 1843, King William County, Legislative Petitions Digital Collection, Library of Virginia. Related Document Bank entry: <a href="https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/items/show/41">King William County Freeholders Petition for the Sale of Pamunkey Land</a> <a href="https://pamunkey.org/reservation" target="_blank" title="this external link opens in a new window." rel="noreferrer noopener">Learn more online about the Pamunkey Indian Reservation today.</a> <a href="https://www.mattaponination.com/" target="_blank" title="This external link opens in a new window." rel="noreferrer noopener">Learn more online about the Mattaponi Indian Reservation today.</a> Standards USI.8, USI.9, VUS.7 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Looking at Language: Look at the language and words used in the petition. What does it tell you about the people who wrote it? What does it tell you about the audience? Post Activity In Their Shoes: Pretend you are a reporter following this petition case. Write a story for your local readers explaining the petition and its possible outcomes. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Pamunkey Indian Tribe, Counter Petition, 1843 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1843 American Indian History Government and Civics https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/52fa15bd46fa25c653d0392f317f7fa5.jpg d82bb7e1049a5f1e4a1543a913f7c54c https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/91197fcefac6a6bfea9e88a455d96046.pdf 808c4efb7dce39dc530cc7ca03df9678 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Expansion and Reform Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1800-1860 Description An account of the resource Between 1800 and 1860, the United States underwent a period of increased territorial growth, immigration, economic growth, and industrialization. At the same time as the nation was increasing in population and size, regional differences were becoming more and more pronounced, and politically confrontational. The idea of Manifest Destiny led to expansion first across the Appalachians, then across the Mississippi, and finally to the Pacific Ocean. Vast swaths of land were aquired via the Louisiana Purchase from France and through the United States’s victory in the Mexican-American War. This expansion, however, did have some negative results, most notably the removal of many Indian nations in the Southeast and old Northwest. Economic development, while increasing wealth and prosperity, also brought regional differences more sharply into focus. Northeastern industrial development, increased urbanization, and technological advancements separated it even further from the agrarian South. There was also a transportation revolution involving railroads, canals, and trans-regional roads, many times centered in the North. The issue of slavery caused increasing strife and political debate as new western territories sought to join the Union. Despite expansion, free African Americans and women were still largely disfranchised. Reforms movements related to temperence, women's rights, education, mental health, and imprisonment occurred in bursts, setting the stage for post-Civil War major reforms. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a>. Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context Black Hawk, born in 1767 and known in his native language as Makataimeshekiakiak, was a Sauk warrior and tribal leader. The Sauk lived on the Rock River, a tributary of the Mississippi, in what is now Illinois, and fought against the United States during the War of 1812 as allies of the British. After the war American settlers pushed into Sauk land, and in the 1820s the United States government forced the Sauk and other tribes to leave their homes and move west of the Mississippi River. In 1832 the Sauk attempted to return to their home, but state militia and federal troops were mobilized against them. Sauk warriors battled the American forces in multiple skirmishes in attempts to enable the women and children to escape capture. Hundreds of Sauk were killed in what became known as Black Hawk's War, and Black Hawk surrendered in August 1832. The United States War Department sent Black Hawk and the other captured men to Fort Monroe, at Hampton, Virginia. This portrait portrays Black Hawk (center) and his eldest son, Nasheaskuk (right), as well as their longtime tribal advisor, known as the Prophet (left). The oil portrait was completed in 1833 by artist James Westhall Ford. It was one of many depictions of Black Hawk made during an enforced “tour” of major cities including Norfolk, Richmond, Philadelphia, New York, and Washington, D.C., where Black Hawk met with U.S. president Andrew Jackson. The War Department planned the tour, during which Black Hawk was required to wear non-native clothing, to demonstrate to the influential warrior the power and sheer number of his white enemies and the futility of further opposition to westward expansion. As a prominent tribal leader Black Hawk was considered central to ensuring peace on the frontier. During the mandatory tour, Black Hawk’s appearances were widely covered in the nation’s newspapers, and he was seen both as a celebrity and a curiosity. The War Department released him in August 1833. Black Hawk returned to his family and wrote an autobiography before his death in Iowa in 1838. Citation: State Art Collection, Library of Virginia Standards K.4, 2.5, 2.9, 3.1, USI.8, USI.9, VUS.7 Suggested Questions Preview Activities Look at it: Black Hawk and his son are dressed very differently in the painting, and yet there are striking similarities. Look closely at the portrait: how are the two figures alike? Different? Look at it: The tribal advisor, known as the Prophet, was influential and trusted by Black Hawk. Look at his depiction in the portrait. What can you tell from the way the Prophet is depicted? Look at it: The three figures in the portrait are not standing side by side nor are they all looking in the same direction. What do you notice about both their arrangement and their eye contact? Can you draw any conclusions from either? Post Activity Think about it: During his tour Black Hawk was considered a respected and formidable figure, and he later wrote an autobiography that became popular. To what extent is this positive reaction to Black Hawk contradictory when we consider the United States’ policies toward American Indians and westward expansion? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Portrait of Black Hawk, 1833 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1833 American Indian History https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/3ad9eb75bacc81f2f6cac2acd3344d41.jpg 16b6e777aeab0234b29023e36baad164 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/505f7df9e949f911fa2e9ca5e58dc01c.pdf 4f39b9e20b802c9c6c186b620f02672d https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/de22a229026070651c5aea6383c2da2c.pdf 520fd4b00a551f2b09c2f67f3ff3fd98 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Development of the Industrial United States Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1870-1900 Description An account of the resource From Reconstruction to the end of the 19th century, the United States went through a dramatic shift in its economic landscape. Industrialization changed not only the nature of business, but also brought technological advances and demand for an ever-increasing workforce. A rapid expansion of the power of big business was countered with the rise of labor movements, and often resulted in conflict, sometimes violent in nature. In contrast to the positive outcomes of technological developments, there were ecological effects not understood at the time, and unhealthy working conditions that often sparked labor disputes and strikes. This shift was felt not only in the industrial big cities of the North and Midwest, but also in the realm of farming, where the United States was now put into the role of the world’s premier food producer. This era is defined largely by migration of African Americans from the South to the Midwest and North; immigration to the U.S. from other countries; and growing urbanization, all of which fed the industrial system. The rapid influx of Black southerners heightened racial tensions as they fought for equality and opportunity. Immigrants, for the first time, were less likely to come from Western Europe, but rather from Southern and Eastern Europe, Asia, Mexico, and Central America. Along with the need for expanding educational systems, which were often structured to push assimilation, the rise in immigration also led to religious tensions as Protestantism was no longer the dominating faith of those immigrating to the United States. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a>. Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context As a young man Anthony Rosenstock (1833–1906) left his home in what is now Germany and sailed from Hamburg to New York City, arriving in November 1853. When he landed, he had three cents and a letter of introduction to a distant relation. He eventually settled in Petersburg, Virginia, where he opened a dry goods store, Temple of Fancy, in 1858. The next year he established A. Rosenstock & Co., one of the first department stores in Virginia. Although he closed the store during the Civil War, he reopened in 1866. Rosenstock was successful in business and became a civic and religious leader in Petersburg, serving as president of Congregation Rodef Sholem and as a director of the National Bank of Petersburg and other business entities. He was naturalized as a United States citizen on June 17, 1869, which is recorded in this document, and he subsequently brought members of his extended family to live and work in the United States. His experience illustrates the opportunities available to immigrants in the mid-nineteenth century United States. He was also one of many German Jewish immigrants who made their way to Virginia and became successful business owners. Naturalization is the process of granting citizenship privileges and responsibilities to foreign-born residents. During much of the 19th century, naturalization requirements for immigrants included residing in the United States for five years, having a "good moral character," and that applicants be "free white persons." Applicants had to publicly declare their intention to become citizens three years before seeking citizenship. To become citizens, applicants such as Anthony Rosenstock and the other men listed here had to go before a local, state, or federal court to renounce any allegiance to a foreign prince, potentate, state, or sovereignty and to take an oath of allegiance to the United States Constitution. Beginning in 1906, the federal government began to regulate the naturalization process through the Bureau of Immigration and Naturalization (now the United States Citizenship and Immigration Services or USCIS). In the 21st century, applicants for citizenship have to have resided in the United States for five years, be of good moral character, and have to pass tests showing that they have an understanding of U.S. history and government and can speak, read, and write basic English. Citation: Petersburg Hustings Court Minute Book, 1869–1872, p. 5, Library of Virginia. Standards VS.9, USII.3, VUS.10, CE.6 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Look at it: Reading over the naturalization document in the Petersburg records, what are the requirements specified for citizenship? To what extent do you think any or all of these requirements are pertinent today? Post Activity Think about it: Today candidates for United States citizenship are required to take a government and history test and a language test demonstrating proficiency in English reading and writing (see descriptions of the tests online at the <a href="https://www.uscis.gov/citizenship/learn-about-citizenship/the-naturalization-interview-and-test" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Citizenship Resource Center</a>). Along with other requirements, most candidates have to pass both tests before they can be considered for naturalization. In your opinion, how fair or unfair is the requirement to pass both these tests? Be specific with your answer. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Anthony Rosenstock, Naturalization, 1869 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1869 Immigration and Migration https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/432d2a6f0d85d559b92e9f7e21838833.jpg 0d18b34f86ee3678380e2363b03c46cf https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/4b616fa6653d167b08308df31669f7fa.pdf e041e15ad29fab52f15e6564233b18a7 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Description An account of the resource Beyond the toll it took on the nation, the Great Depression helped to shape modern-day America, especially in expanding the role of government in citizens' everyday lives. The circumstances of the Depression spurred President Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal initiatives that included the Works Progress Administration, Civilian Conservation Corps, Farm Security Administration, and the Social Security Administration to assist the unemployed, farmers, and the elderly. World War II helped not only to bring the nation out of the Depression, but also put the United States on the world stage as a superpower. Unlike previous administrations, both Roosevelt and President Harry S. Truman placed the United States on a path to leadership in worldwide conflicts and reform movements. The war changed the role of women as they entered the workforce while American men went to war. Events such as the bombing at Pearl Harbor, liberation of concentration camps, the use of atomic bombs, and the rise of the Soviet Union as a superpower shaped future American foreign policy. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a> Title A name given to the resource The Great Depression and World War II Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1929 - 1945 Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context The contributions of African Americans to the politics, life, and culture of the Commonwealth of Virginia have often been ignored in traditional histories and textbooks. Historian Luther Porter Jackson (1892–1950), however, researched and wrote numerous books, newspaper columns, and articles detailing what could be called a “hidden” history of Black Virginians. Beginning in the 1920s, he promoted the annual Negro History Week in Virginia, the precursor to today's Black History Month. For years, scholars and historians have turned to Jackson’s work for reliable and well-documented information that challenged racist stereotypes about Black Virginians in American history. A history professor and chair of the History Department at Virginia State University, Jackson had degrees from Fisk University, Columbia University, and a doctorate from the University of Chicago. Throughout his career he made extensive use of primary source materials in local courthouses and in state and national archives, including birth, marriage, and death records, tax records, property deeds, legal and court records, military records, and other government documents. He also researched in newspapers and family papers, and he interviewed family descendants to carefully document the life and work of Black Virginians. Some of his most significant works include: <ul> <li>Free Negro Labor and Property Holding in Virginia 1830–1860 (1942), which showed the rise of property ownership among Virginia’s free Black men and women before the Civil War.</li> <li>Virginia Negro Soldiers and Seamen in the American Revolution (1944), which documented the service almost 200 Black Virginians who served in the army and navy during the Revolutionary War.</li> <li>Negro Office-Holders in Virginia 1865–1895 (1945, 1946), which provided biographical information about the Black men who served in the Virginia Constitutional Convention of 1867–1868, as delegates and senators in the General Assembly from 1869 to 1891, and some local office holders of the late-19th century. For many years Jackson's work was often the only source documenting their election to public office.</li> </ul> Beyond his teaching and research, Luther P. Jackson was active in advancing civil rights. He wrote a weekly newspaper column for the Norfolk Journal and Guide during the 1940s on “Rights and Duties In a Democracy.” In it, he regularly advocated registering to vote and voting as well as using the courts to fight segregation laws. He also shared inspirational examples of Black Virginians in history. In this column, published on August 21, 1943, Jackson describes the participation of Black soldiers and sailors in the American Revolution, including William Flora, at the Battle of Great Bridge, and James Lafayette, who spied on the British at Yorktown. He wanted his readers to understand that the Black Virginians then serving in Europe and the Pacific during World War II were part of a long tradition of fighting "for liberty and democracy" in American history. Citation: Luther P. Jackson, Virginia Negro Solders and Seamen in the American Revolution," Norfolk Journal and Guide, 21 August 1943. Related Document Bank Entry: <a href="https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/items/show/277">Petition of James Lafayette, New Kent County, 1786.</a> Standards VS.8, VS.11, USII.5, USII.8, VUS.10, VUS.16 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Think about it: You are a member of numerous communities in your school, neighborhood, with your friends, relatives, and in your social media connections and online groups. Think about “hidden histories” in any of those communities; what are they and what kind of research and/or facts would you like to be publicized? Post Activities Think about it: L. P. Jackson wrote about the service of Black Virginians during the American Revolution and copies of Virginia Negro Soldiers and Seamen of the American Revolution were sent to African American teachers in Virginia's public schools. Why might L. P. Jackson have done this? Consider the time period when the book was published. Look at it: Examining the titles of L. P. Jackson’s books, what topic or topics might interest you as a project for this year’s Black History month? Briefly explain or add your own topic or topics. Analyze: The famed African American historian G. Carter Woodson was a contemporary of Luther Porter Jackson and is today well known as a researcher and activist. Briefly research Woodson’s life and work <a href="in%20the%20Norfolk%20Journal%20and%20Guide," target="_blank" title="This non-LVA link will open in a new window." rel="noreferrer noopener">(see his online biography at Encyclopedia Virginia</a>): what do you see as connections to or commonalities with Jackson? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Luther Porter Jackson—Highlighting Black History Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1943 African American History https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/79498ad848694f805fa2a9d351a38459.jpg 74fed98379cf499a43892a706232b0c1 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/5fe495cdf66fb64b0e6f5d845d19dbb0.jpg ff6fa6a3a7c8cf91af8313d3ecd89d87 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/6fa3b80dd5a63aa979c655c2e6ec39ac.pdf c480dd4e1b96a51d98afddb77453107e https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/bcef37c17ae5a17f498049f239a298ee.pdf a147cfcfd41c4172cdd0a115d458f5be Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Emergence of Modern America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1890-1930 Description An account of the resource The idea of a “Modern United States” begins with the advent of the Progressive era. The Progressive movement focused on reforms viewed as necessary after drastic increases in industrialization, immigration, and urbanization, as well as corruption in the business and political realms. Temperance reached its peak with the 18th Amendment and the decade of Prohibition, while woman suffrage became guaranteed nationally with the 19th Amendment. Other movements that gained traction on a new scale during this era were the labor movement, including the rise of unions, and the Harlem Renaissance. Shifting roles for African Americans migrating to northern cities and unprecendented immigration to America's shores heightened racial and ethnic tensions and led to the resurgence of the Ku Klux Klan. With all of the changes on the home front of America, this era also saw the emergence of the United States as a major world power. The Spanish-American War pitted the U.S. against a European power other than Great Britain for the first time. Not long after, the United States found itself embroiled in World War I, despite strong isolationist tendencies. Along with a large death toll, World War I led to the development of the failed League of Nations, ultimately pushing the United States even further into an isolationist standing that would last for decades. The immediate postwar period of the Prohibition-era “Roaring 20s” saw a domination in politics and economics by big business and its supporters, which would all come crashing down in less than a decade. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a>. Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context Early in the 20th century, thousands of European immigrants worked in the coalfields of southwestern Virginia. After the Civil War, rail companies had expanded westward as entrepreneurs and industrialists opened coal seams in the region. Beginning in the 1880s, southwest Virginia coalfields supplied high-grade coking coal to fuel the steel industry and steam coal for industrial and domestic use. Mining companies encouraged European immigration as a source of mine laborers. In these documents (translated from Hungarian), dated March 24, 1916, Jozsef Estéfan, a coal miner living in Osaka, in Wise County, swore an oath that he would financially support his daughter Róza if she were allowed to emigrate from Hungary. World War I was then being fought in Europe and he must have been desperate to bring his teenage daughter to join her parents and sister in Virginia. He also provided a statement from a notary public that certified Estéfan’s identity and confirmed his ability to “provide a satisfactory life style for the immigrant.” A native of Komoró, Jozsef Estéfan first entered the United States in October 1901. After about two years, he returned to Hungary before immigrating to America again in 1905. On the ship manifests from both voyages, Jozsef Estéfan was listed as a married man who was unable to read or write. His wife and two children arrived in New York in 1912, although his daughter Róza must have returned to Hungary before the beginning of World War I in August 1914. There is no record of the outcome of Jozsef’s efforts to bring Róza back to safety in Virginia. At the time of Jozsef Estéfan's request, there were few limits on immigration to the United States other than the 1882 act of Congress that severely restricted Chinese immigration. In 1921, Congress instituted immigration quotas based on national origin to preference residents of Western Hemisphere countries, especially from western and northern Europe. Since the 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act, the United States has primarily admitted immigrants who have family members who are U. S. citizens or have lawful permanent resident status. The national-origins quota system was ended, although there are limits to the number of immigrants admitted each year. Citation: Jozsef Estéfan Declaration of Support and Affidavit, March 24, 1916, Wise County Circuit Court Records, Library of Virginia. Related Document Bank entry: <a href="https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/items/show/145">Pocahontas Colliery Story, Photograph, 1883</a> Standards CE.6, VS.9, USII.3, VUS.10, VUS.12, GOVT.5 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Think About it: A notary public is a state-appointed official who can serve as an impartial witness to authenticate a person's statement or signature. Why might Jozsef Estéfan have needed a notary to certify the accuracy of his statement? Post Activity Food for Thought: In Jozsef Estéfan's petition, he attests that he can provide for his daughter Róza and that she will not be a “burden for the United States in any way.” To what is Estefan referring and why might this be a consideration in approving Roza’s immigration? Similarly, Estéfan asserts that he will be responsible for Róza’s “moral life.” To what do you think he is referring and why might this have been considered an important factor in approving Róza’s immigration at that time? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Jozsef Estéfan, Immigration Request, 1916 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1916 Immigration and Migration https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/8d7d85aaf3d4de0053234222c78d4c07.jpg 6a262b4e8d1e62bad3906f290f6b0a9a https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/66874f7672ed106d58226ca55deb89fd.pdf e64f3a9518fc77b3d5633807c8ad33ae Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Expansion and Reform Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1800-1860 Description An account of the resource Between 1800 and 1860, the United States underwent a period of increased territorial growth, immigration, economic growth, and industrialization. At the same time as the nation was increasing in population and size, regional differences were becoming more and more pronounced, and politically confrontational. The idea of Manifest Destiny led to expansion first across the Appalachians, then across the Mississippi, and finally to the Pacific Ocean. Vast swaths of land were aquired via the Louisiana Purchase from France and through the United States’s victory in the Mexican-American War. This expansion, however, did have some negative results, most notably the removal of many Indian nations in the Southeast and old Northwest. Economic development, while increasing wealth and prosperity, also brought regional differences more sharply into focus. Northeastern industrial development, increased urbanization, and technological advancements separated it even further from the agrarian South. There was also a transportation revolution involving railroads, canals, and trans-regional roads, many times centered in the North. The issue of slavery caused increasing strife and political debate as new western territories sought to join the Union. Despite expansion, free African Americans and women were still largely disfranchised. Reforms movements related to temperence, women's rights, education, mental health, and imprisonment occurred in bursts, setting the stage for post-Civil War major reforms. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a>. Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context Beginning in the 18th century, cemeteries in Richmond were racially segregated. Deceased residents of African descent were interred in the Burial Ground for Negroes (also known as the African Burial Ground) alongside the city’s Shockoe Creek. The burial ground was largely untended, prone to flooding, and adjacent to slaughterhouses. After Nat Turner's Rebellion in 1831, the General Assembly forbade enslaved and free Black Virginians from assembling in groups. Because they could not gather to perform burial ceremonies, free Black residents of Richmond protested in 1834 that “many coloured human beings are interred like brutes” in an unsuccessful petition for permission to gather for funerals if they obtained a license from a white minister. In the 19th century, Black residents of Richmond sought to establish their own cemeteries in more favorable locations. Gilbert Hunt (ca. 1780–1863) and other free African Americans established the Union Burial Ground Society in 1846. The Society adopted this formal constitution in 1848. The members cited “a deep interest in the welfare of our race,” and announced that for $10 any free person could purchase a section of the cemetery “with a right to inter any person he may think proper.” The new burial ground was just north of Richmond, and is today part of Barton Heights Cemeteries. Gilbert Hunt’s interest in this civic improvement for his community is characteristic. Trained as a blacksmith, he purchased his freedom in 1829, and for a brief time lived in the West African colony of Liberia. He soon returned to Richmond, however, and was well known and revered as an outspoken community leader and deacon of the First African Baptist Church. Hunt was also honored as a local hero for having saved numerous lives during two deadly fires, one at Christmas in 1811 at the Richmond Theatre and one in 1823 at the Virginia State Penitentiary. This constitution established the rules for the organization. Citation: Union Burial Ground Constitution, 1848, Accession 22514a, Organization Records Collection, Library of Virginia. Standards USI.9, VUS.8 Suggested Questions Preview Activities Look at it: The Union Burial Ground Society Constitution lists 16 rules, many of which detail bureaucratic procedures. How is rule VI different, and why might it have been important to this group? Look at it: What is the significance of rule XIII? Look at it: Who do you assume are the “strangers” mentioned in rule XV, and why would the Union Burial Ground Society Constitution include them? Post Activity Be the Journalist: You are a journalist preparing to interview Gilbert Hunt and other members of the Union Burial Ground Society. What are the three most important questions you would ask? Why are they important? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Union Burial Ground Society Constitution, 1848 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1848 African American History