1 10 25 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/188d16b5febe5f0c120c0200052bfca5.jpg 77731acbedde910363b6fe70fc7f6886 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/6b41a502cd6862a1fa125885d8d1c50c.pdf 97b8a396c63007d57034732e5e94998f https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/59874bfa2e5757d693f86d94972b9deb.pdf d3d4c0952411ae828d445004198de2e8 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Colonization and Settlement Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1607-1763 Description An account of the resource The colonial era in American history is essential in setting the framework for all the eras to follow. Nearly two centuries of colonization on the continent and in the Caribbean provide three distinct groups to study: Europeans, indigenous peoples, and Africans brought to the colonies as enslaved persons. The varying reasons for departure from Europe set the stage for how different colonies came into being and interacted with each other. Violent conflicts, importation of disease, and dispossession of native lands were all results of Europeans’ interactions with the indigenous populations. The importation of enslaved people also led to an economic structure in some colonies that became, in their minds, reliant on the continued existence of slave labor. Government structure and political life had distinct characteristics in New England, the Mid-Atlantic, and the South as they groped their way toward mature political institutions. Economics were affected by geographic location and the local natural resources, adding to regional differences, and sometimes, divisions. Religion and politics were often influenced by the European nation who colonized the area – French, Spanish, Dutch, or English. Religion was a defining characteristic of some colonies, as opposed to the economic reasons for which others were established. Ideas of religious freedom, denominationalism, and the Great Awakening all impacted daily life. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a>. Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context English expansion into Indigenous territories led to several violent eruptions of conflict in the first decades of settlement in Virginia. A series of wars called the Anglo-Powhatan Wars ended in 1646 with the death of Opechancanough, brother of Powhatan and leader of the nation. Several Indigenous tribes signed a treaty that established the first Indigenous reservation in America, set out hunting territories for both sides, and secured English dominance by requiring allied Indigenous communities to pay an annual tribute to the crown. This treaty included the Pamunkey tribe, which had been part of the larger Powhatan confederation. The peace in eastern Virginia held for several decades, but conflict between an English planter and the Doeg tribe in 1675 spiraled into a wider war with the Susquehannock. When Governor Sir William Berkeley refused the demands of Nathaniel Bacon and others for more land and more security on the colony's frontier, Bacon led a militia to attack friendly Indigenous communities in 1676. One of these was the Pamunkey, a tributary tribe whose leader Cockacoeske was forced to retreat into Dragon Swamp after her town had been destroyed and some of her people had been killed and captured despite having agreed to provide warriors to ally with Virginia's government against the Susquehannock. Bacon's Rebellion continued throughout 1676 and pitted colonists who supported the governor against those who supported Bacon, many of whom wanted to eliminate the Indigenous tribes. Fighting continued until Governor Berkeley's forces subdued the rebellion in January 1677. King Charles II sent troops who did not arrive until afterwards, as well as commissioners to report on the conflict. In February 1677, Cockacoeske went before the Virginia Assembly to demand that Pamunkey land be returned and the Pamunkey prisoners be released. The burgesses made no response, but the royal commissioners agreed that the Pamunkey and other tributary tribes had been mistreated. The commissioners negotiated a treaty of peace on behalf of the king with Virginia tribes who had remained loyal to the colonial government. The Treaty of Middle Plantation (now the city of Williasmburg) was read aloud and signed in a public ceremony on May 29, 1677. Cockacoeske signed the treaty as "Queen of the Pamunkey" and on behalf of several tribes of the former Powhatan Confederacy. Her son John West, whose father had been the son of a colonial governor, signed as well. Three other tribal representatives, whose names are not recorded, signed the treaty, including the female leader of the Weyanoke and two male leaders of the Nottoway and Nansemond tribes. This treaty affirmed the rights delineated in the 1646 treaty but also banned English settlers from moving within three miles of Indigenous land. Tribal members had the right to take complaints to the governor, who was to treat them as Englishmen. The governor also had the right to regulate trade between the English and tribuary tribes. The tribes could appoint their own interpreters whom they trusted. The treaty required all Indigenous people who wanted to hunt or fish outside of their land to register with the magistrate of the local district first and forbade them from remaining in those areas overnight. Most of the rights bestowed in the treaty were eroded during subsequent decades, but the treaty still remains in effect. This signature page of the treaty shows Cockacoeske’s signature—the W shape at the top left. Citation: "Articles of Peace Between the Most Mighty Prince . . . Charles the Second . . . Made and Concluded at the Camp at Middle Plantation the nine and twentieth day of May (1677)," in Samuel Wiseman's Book of Record, Pepysian Library, Magdalen College, Cambridge, England (available on Virginia Colonial Records Project microfilm reel 578, Library of Virginia). <a href="https://encyclopediavirginia.org/primary-documents/articles-of-peace-1677/" target="_blank" title="link opens in a new tab" rel="noreferrer noopener">Read a transcription of the published version of the Treaty of Peace online at Encyclopedia Virginia.</a> Related Document Bank entry: <a href="https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/items/show/328">Cockacoeske, Frontlet from King Charles II, 1677</a> <a href="https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/cockacoeske-d-by-july-1-1686/" target="_blank" title="link opens in a new tab" rel="noreferrer noopener">Learn more about Cockacoeske in her Dictionary of Virginia Biography entry online at Encyclopedia Virginia.</a> Suggested Questions Preview Activity Scan It: Read the words in this page of the treaty. Which stand out to you, and why? To whom are these words directed, and why? Post Activities Think About It: Imagine you were an Indigenous person whose tribe had signed a treaty in 1646 and then faced violence during Bacon’s Rebellion. How would you have reacted to that? What would you think about your leaders signing this treaty? Be the Journalist: Imagine you were a journalist about to interview Cockacoeske. What questions would you ask her, and why? What would you expect her answers to your questions to be? Standards VS.2, US1.3, US1.5, VUS.4 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Treaty of Middle Plantation, Signature page, 1677 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1677 American Indian History Government and Civics https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/5fae42f04bd301294bda9d244dbf5770.jpg 9cba767898c9180711274e7a0f161f35 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/d863d5e5d56668e287a0d3d542d04a80.pdf f4c404eb13235cb4997a3b4f61f07ef0 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Colonization and Settlement Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1607-1763 Description An account of the resource The colonial era in American history is essential in setting the framework for all the eras to follow. Nearly two centuries of colonization on the continent and in the Caribbean provide three distinct groups to study: Europeans, indigenous peoples, and Africans brought to the colonies as enslaved persons. The varying reasons for departure from Europe set the stage for how different colonies came into being and interacted with each other. Violent conflicts, importation of disease, and dispossession of native lands were all results of Europeans’ interactions with the indigenous populations. The importation of enslaved people also led to an economic structure in some colonies that became, in their minds, reliant on the continued existence of slave labor. Government structure and political life had distinct characteristics in New England, the Mid-Atlantic, and the South as they groped their way toward mature political institutions. Economics were affected by geographic location and the local natural resources, adding to regional differences, and sometimes, divisions. Religion and politics were often influenced by the European nation who colonized the area – French, Spanish, Dutch, or English. Religion was a defining characteristic of some colonies, as opposed to the economic reasons for which others were established. Ideas of religious freedom, denominationalism, and the Great Awakening all impacted daily life. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a>. Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context Cockacoeske was a significant figure in the history of the Pamunkey tribe in Virginia. She was a descendant of Opechancanough, the brother of Powhatan, who had been the paramount chief of the Powhatan Confederacy. Cockacoeske became weroansqua, or leader, of the Pamunkey after her husband Totopotomoy died in 1656 while fighting as an ally of Virginia's government. In many Indigenous societies, women held positions of power and authority, participating in decision-making and governance alongside men. This stood in stark contrast to the roles of English women in the colony. Female leaders like Cockacoeske played crucial roles in maintaining the social, political, and cultural fabric of their communities. At the time of Cockacoeske's leadership, the Pamunkey were tributaries of the English crown. In 1676, the Virginia Assembly called Cockacoeske to appear before a committee of burgesses and Council members in Jamestown. Fighting between colonists and Indigenous tribes had intensified with Nathaniel Bacon's recent indiscriminate attacks against friends and foes, and the Assembly sought allies in the colony's war against the Susquehannock tribe. Cockacoeske attended wearing a full-length deerskin mantle (or cloak) with a woven band of beaded wampum and peake shells around her head. Described as having "a Majestick air," she addressed the audience of white men and reminded them that Pamunkey warriors had fought and died alongside them, with no compensation to the Pamunkey. She struck a deal with the council to provide a dozen men to help protect the colony against hostile frontier tribes and signed a treaty with the colony in March. During Bacon's Rebellion that summer, Nathaniel Bacon and his followers attacked the Pamunkey, killing some of Cockacoeske's people and capturing forty-five. Cockacoeske herself had to abandon all her belongings and take refuge in the Dragon Swamp, on the Middle Peninsula. There, the group she sheltered nearly starved. In February 1677, she petitioned the General Assembly to release the captives and restore Pamunkey property. The Virginia burgesses were unresponsive, but royal representatives who had been sent to quell the rebellion and investigate its origins determined that her loyalty should be rewarded. Cockacoeske's diplomatic efforts culminated in the signing of the Treaty of Middle Plantation on May 29, 1677. This treaty reunited several tribes under her authority, marking a significant achievement for her leadership. The treaty also protected her tribe’s hunting rights and granted them the right to submit complaints to the governor who was to dispense justice as though they were Englishmen. Cockacoeske led the Pamunkey until her death in 1686. Her legacy as a female leader and diplomat testifies to the strength and resilience of Indigenous Virginians during the challenges of colonial expansion. This frontlet was commissioned by King Charles II as a gift for Cockacoeske, "The Queene of Pamunkey," in recognition of her loyalty. The hammered silver is engraved with the British royal coat of arms. Citation: Frontlet, circa 1677, engraved and hammered silver, loaned for the Library of Virginia's Indigenous Perspectives exhibition by the Pamunkey Indian Museum and Cultural Center (2024). Related Document Bank entry: <a href="https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/items/show/329">Treaty of Middle Plantation, Signature page, 1677</a> Standards K.4, 1.4, 1.5, 2.5, VS.2, VS.3, VS.4, US1.3, WHII.3, VUS.4 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Take a look: Look at the silver frontlet given to Cockacoeske. What do you think this piece represents about her role as a leader and the significance of her legacy? Post Activity Food For Thought: Why do you think it is important to recognize and celebrate the contributions of female leaders in history? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Cockacoeske, Frontlet from King Charles II, 1677 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1677 American Indian History Military History https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/c22f721e0cf325bff8b57a7a41ea834a.jpg cf5c04accb2a1c3d70df51ecb3a2f733 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/fae5906d797abb0466641fe4cc1ebb31.jpg 260f274ad69a88433dab659c8b42e215 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/363a5dc3bb2bc8d027490aa0dd7ab167.jpg 9f21e4a7019edc2959aba3cbb6ea086d https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/c7deb22bf7c74aa1085dfd45566565e0.pdf c9d1406f9f329b6d5dc4114e63ffaa48 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/6014c97d2d1bef11d40f96713c0cda10.pdf 4c44a0e017d4c8d5b2360b9625e7776f Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Postwar United States Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1945 - 1970s Description An account of the resource The era following World War II brought about vast changes, not only in foreign policy, but in economics and a changing civic landscape. The liberalism of the New Deal era grew into movements towards increasing civil liberties and economic opportunities, particularly for underrepresented communities and women. Protests became more common as groups demanded equal rights and voting equality. These movements were juxtaposed with Jim Crow laws and the reemergence of the Ku Klux Klan. The Cold War pitted the United States and its allies in NATO against the Soviet Union and other communist nations, particularly China, Korea, and Vietnam. During this period campaigns were fought not only on the battleground, but in the political arena and social consciousness as well. The fall of the Nazi regime opened the door to the Iron Curtain and Soviet dominance of Eastern Europe. Through the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan the U.S. sought to halt the spread of communism further west. The defeat of Japan enabled previously occupied counties the chance to choose new leaders, many of whom sided with communism over capitalism. The United States would spend much of this period adhering to the “Domino Theory” foreign policy to contain the spread of communism. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a> Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context After the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education (1954) that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional, Virginia resisted desegregating its schools for years. One tactic was the creation of a state Pupil Placement Board to assign (or place) students in public schools, a task formerly under the control of local school boards. In this way the Commonwealth could limit how many Black or multiracial students would be enrolled in previously all-white schools. This document is the application submitted in 1963 by Thelma L. Branham, a member of the Monacan tribe, to place her daughter in Amherst Elementary School. Like other Indigenous Virginians, members of the Monacan nation occupied a tenuous space in the racial hierarchy of Virginia. When the General Assembly created the segregated public school system in 1870, Virginia Indians were left out of the system entirely. Some could “pass” as white and attend white schools, but they were generally expected to attend the Black schools established at the time. Like other Indigenous citizens, Monacans reacted by creating their own institutions. In 1924, with the passage of the Racial Integrity Act, Virginia Indians like the Monacan were virtually erased from public records, as the law deemed everyone in Virginia a Black person if they had one drop of nonwhite blood. The Monacans built a one-room schoolhouse for their children on Bear Mountain, in Amherst County. This school served children through seventh grade. Public officials treated the Monacan school as they did other nonwhite schools; it received less financial support and had part-time teachers supplied by the county on an irregular basis. In 1907, the Episcopal Church established a mission there. The diocese supplied full-time teachers for the school, which was enlarged to two rooms and was eventually electrified. However, Monacan students wanting classes beyond eighth grade had to take them through correspondence classes or leave the state to attend high school. Although the school board began supplying full-time teachers by 1940, this 1953 article ("Sanitation Report Made") in the Amherst New Era-Progress reported that the Monacan school was one of many in the county in terrible condition, suffering from overcrowding and sanitation problems due to its lack of running water. Most of the white schools in the county—all but two—were deemed adequate, but sixteen Black schools and the Monacan school were not as a result of neglect by the local school board. Monacans were subject to the same prejudicial laws as Black citizens, including the state's massive resistance to desegregation. In 1963, Amherst County tried to build a new, larger school with a high school for the Monacans, which was one of the ways the state tried to maintain segregation. Instead, Bear Mountain Mission School closed and Monacan students had to navigate the complicated and lengthy process created by the Pupil Placement Board to attend white schools. This 1964 article ("4-Room Addition Approved By Board") in the New Era-Progress explained where the students were transfered to and describes the Monacan students with the offensive term "issue." Originating as term for free Black people during slavery, "free issue" was later used by Walter Placker, State Board of Health Registrar and architect of the 1924 law, to describe Indigenous Virginians, who he viewed as vastly inferior to whites. It was not until 1970 that all Amherst county schools integrated. The Bear Mountain Mission school is now the Monacan Nation’s Museum. Citations: County Transfers, Amherst-Approved, 1963 (box 40), Records of the Virginia Pupil Placement Board, 1957-1966, Accession 26517, Library of Virginia; "Sanitation Report on Schools Made," Amherst New Era-Progress, <a href="https://virginiachronicle.com/?a=d&d=ANE19531029.1.1">Oct. 29, 1953</a>; "Four-Room Addition Approved by Board," Amherst New Era-Progress, <a href="https://virginiachronicle.com/?a=d&d=ANE19640709.1.1">July 9, 1964</a>, Library of Virginia. Related Document Bank entry: <a href="https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/items/show/226">The New Virginia Law to Preserve Racial Integrity, March 1924</a> <a href="https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/monacan-indian-nation/">Learn more about the Monacan Nation online at Encyclopedia Virginia.</a> <a href="https://uncommonwealth.virginiamemory.com/blog/2013/09/04/what-did-you-learn-in-school-today-the-records-of-the-virginia-pupil-placement-board/">Learn more about the Pupil Placement Board records in The UncommonWealth blog.</a> Standards VS.8, VS.10, VS.11, USII.2, USII.5, USII.8, VUS.8, VUS.16 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Scan It: Scan the articles for information. What schools were described as inadequate? Which ones were not? Why do you think some of the schools were in worse condition than others? Post Activities Analyze: Read the newspaper articles and the pupil placement application. Why did Mrs. Branham want her daughter to go to a different school? What problems did she point out? What opportunities did she see elsewhere? How did the reports from the school sanitation committee support her arguments about the mission school? Current Connection: How would you characterize the condition of your school, and why? What could you do about it? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Monacan Education and the Pupil Placement Board, Amherst County, 1963 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1963 American Indian History https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/096877a4a05d6c1c2269100e874bbf58.jpg 91e339e388478c1014249595ef8f09a6 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/3cacdbe9d468ebedc13312ba4316e265.jpg 42210e42f6b263af9289a926e8118ac7 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/abea9f92c3e73ddab2205bf9f6fa8527.jpg 20261883010d9b6d7f355cb02a081289 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/b7b93660726d0723a11913c6bc2c1daf.pdf a226ac3b4e4cfcaeeb0e7857c33b59b2 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/e30d964f0af53eae125e2dc56784766c.pdf b3eca8acc7f583d16d43102c01523fc1 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Colonization and Settlement Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1607-1763 Description An account of the resource The colonial era in American history is essential in setting the framework for all the eras to follow. Nearly two centuries of colonization on the continent and in the Caribbean provide three distinct groups to study: Europeans, indigenous peoples, and Africans brought to the colonies as enslaved persons. The varying reasons for departure from Europe set the stage for how different colonies came into being and interacted with each other. Violent conflicts, importation of disease, and dispossession of native lands were all results of Europeans’ interactions with the indigenous populations. The importation of enslaved people also led to an economic structure in some colonies that became, in their minds, reliant on the continued existence of slave labor. Government structure and political life had distinct characteristics in New England, the Mid-Atlantic, and the South as they groped their way toward mature political institutions. Economics were affected by geographic location and the local natural resources, adding to regional differences, and sometimes, divisions. Religion and politics were often influenced by the European nation who colonized the area – French, Spanish, Dutch, or English. Religion was a defining characteristic of some colonies, as opposed to the economic reasons for which others were established. Ideas of religious freedom, denominationalism, and the Great Awakening all impacted daily life. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a>. Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context The Brafferton School was one of several colonial “Indian Schools” intended to Christianize and educate Indigenous men and boys in a western scholastic tradition. It was part of a larger effort by Europeans to westernize and Christianize the Indigenous peoples of the Americas. Brafferton’s establishment was made possible by a bequest of a prominent English scientist, who offered his fortune to the education of society. His trustees purchased an estate in Yorkshire and donated the yearly funds to the school, which was named after the estate in England. Located in Williamsburg at the College of William and Mary, Brafferton was designed to help train intermediaries between the colonists and Indigenous people. In November 1711, Lieutenant Governor Alexander Spotswood wrote to the Board of Trade, which supervised Great Britain's colonies, and described how he had urged the leaders of Virginia’s tributary tribes to send their sons to Brafferton. Leaders like Queen Ann of the Pamunkey objected to the separation of tribal families and feared that sending the boys would make them vulnerable to being sold into slavery. This fear was not unfounded, as Indigenous peoples had been sold into slavery in the past. In fact, the first four students at the school were boys Virginia officials had purchased from the Catawba, likely as prisoners of war. After Spotswood agreed to remit the annual tribute of animal skins, Queen Ann attended the Governor's Council on November 20 to inform them that she and the Pamunkey "Greatmen" agreed to send three Pamunkey boys, her own son and two sons of the councilors. Other tribal leaders, including the Nansemond, Nottoway, and Meherrin, also agreed to send boys to the school. In the documents, Spotswood refers to the Indigenous students as “Hostages.” It is unclear whether he used that language with Indigenous leaders, but it suggests that the Indigenous leaders’ distrust of the English and their motives was reasonable. The next year saw an enrollment at Brafferton of the four original prisoners of war plus twenty students, all of whom came from tribes that had agreed to send their sons in exchange for a nullification of their yearly tribute. In the 18th century, yearly enrollment hovered between forty and eighty students from surrounding tribes like the Pamunkey, Nottoway, and Chickahominy, as well as from tribes hailing from further north and south, like the Delaware and Cherokee. The school taught English, traditional liberal arts courses, and Christian theology to students until after the Revolutionary War, when it closed permanently as English funding evaporated. The next wave of “Indian Schools” began in the mid-nineteenth century, and these boarding schools sought to eradicate Indigenous culture, rather than introduce western culture to Indigenous people. Both waves of boarding schools had in common the founders’ sense of cultural superiority over the Indigenous people. Citations: Excerpt from Lt. Gov. Alexander Spotswood to Commissioners for Trade and Plantations, Nov. 17, 1711, Colonial Office 5/1316, Public Record Office, Kew, England (available on Virginia Colonial Records Project microfilm at the Library of Virginia). Excerpt from Nov. 20, 1711 minutes printed in Executive Journals, Council of Colonial Virginia, ed. H. J. McILwaine (Richmond: Virginia State Library, 1925–1966), 3:290─291. For more information, <a href="https://www.wm.edu/about/history/historiccampus/brafferton/indianschool/">read "The Early Decades of the Brafferton Indian School"</a> from the College of William and Mary. Standards VS.3, VS.4, US1.3, US1.5, WHII.4, VUS.4 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Scan It: Scan the letter. What words stand out to you, and why? What is the tone of the letter? To whom was he writing, and what was the purpose of Spotswood’s letter? Post-Activity Think About It: Read the documents more closely. What do you think would make an Indigenous leader decide to send a child to this school? Do you think their concerns were well-grounded? Why or why not? What do you think of Spotswood’s use of the term “hostages” to describe the students? Another Perspective: You are a member of a group opposed to sending children to Brafferton School to be educated. Why does your group feel this way? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Letter from Lt. Gov. Alexander Spotswood About Educating Indians, 1711 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1711 American Indian History https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/d9a261832f0bd23f344d7da14a4d83d6.jpg 8496bf1eee5e615e2e4a8c16dc8bd4a7 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/ae89e43e0f3fb3e35d7f8a5b5452aa85.jpg 8b04fd0abd6ff320a47fda8b46d7a5ce https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/560162b1634fc358c9904c446e3d94b1.pdf 792a3e282eeab9479ed686aaffa9e9dc https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/bd86d012ef364f56216d512084057e01.pdf 1de5e1ba30b536b75d27579d59e95670 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Colonization and Settlement Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1607-1763 Description An account of the resource The colonial era in American history is essential in setting the framework for all the eras to follow. Nearly two centuries of colonization on the continent and in the Caribbean provide three distinct groups to study: Europeans, indigenous peoples, and Africans brought to the colonies as enslaved persons. The varying reasons for departure from Europe set the stage for how different colonies came into being and interacted with each other. Violent conflicts, importation of disease, and dispossession of native lands were all results of Europeans’ interactions with the indigenous populations. The importation of enslaved people also led to an economic structure in some colonies that became, in their minds, reliant on the continued existence of slave labor. Government structure and political life had distinct characteristics in New England, the Mid-Atlantic, and the South as they groped their way toward mature political institutions. Economics were affected by geographic location and the local natural resources, adding to regional differences, and sometimes, divisions. Religion and politics were often influenced by the European nation who colonized the area – French, Spanish, Dutch, or English. Religion was a defining characteristic of some colonies, as opposed to the economic reasons for which others were established. Ideas of religious freedom, denominationalism, and the Great Awakening all impacted daily life. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a>. Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context Relations between Virgina's Indigenous peoples and the colonists who wanted to settle on their land were often contentious and violent. Virginia's colonial government passed multiple laws in the 17th century to regulate the actions of settlers and tribal members, many of which were not consistently enforced. The March 1662 law “Concerning Indians” was long and fairly comprehensive, detailing rights, responsibilities, and potential punishments for both Virginia Indians and the English colonists. The final section acknowledged that the enslavement of Indians was occurring in the colony and attempted to address it. This section stated that Indian servants were not to be held in servitude for a time period longer than was the case for white servants and also that Indian servants were not to be transferred from one master to another (as if they were slaves). Furthermore, if any colonist wanted to hire an Indian as a servant, they would need written permission from the governor to do so, and would be held responsible for any consequences resulting from actions of an Indian servant against an English person. In 1711, New Kent County resident Richard Littlepage submitted a petition to Lieutenant Governor Alexander Spotswood requesting permission to hire two Pamunkey Indians to work for him as servants. In his petition, Littlepage cites the provisions of the 1662 law (dated 1661 here because at that time the new year did not begin until March 25). Governor Spotswood granted Littlepage permission to hire "the said Indian man and Woman," but further noted that "Whenever the Queen of Pamunkey shall recall them or either of them, the said Richard Littlepage shall imediately Dismiss them from his Service," and he would have to obtain a new license to hire them again with the consent of Queen Ann, the Pamunkey leader. The petition and certificate inform our understanding of the social interactions between the English colonists and the Pamunkey and indicate that the law regarding Indian employment was still being followed fifty years after the act's passage. However, the enslavement of Indigenous peoples was legalized by the House of Burgesses in 1682 and continued in Virginia into the 18th century. These two documents, specifically Spotswood’s certificate, also speak to the power and influence of Ann, the chief or weroance of the Pamunkey, who was known by the colonists as Queen of the Pamunkey and who regularly petitioned Virginia’s government to uphold its agreements. Citations: <a href="https://rosetta.virginiamemory.com/delivery/DeliveryManagerServlet?dps_pid=IE3451961">Petition of Richard Littlepage</a>, ca. 1711, and <a href="https://rosetta.virginiamemory.com/delivery/DeliveryManagerServlet?dps_pid=IE3447534">Certificate of Alexander Spotswood</a>, Oct. 25, 1711, both in Colonial Papers Digital Collection, Library of Virginia. For more information, read <a href="https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/the-legal-status-and-classification-of-indigenous-people-in-virginia/">The Legal Status and Classification of Virginia Indians</a> online at Encyclopedia Virginia. To learn more about Ann, read her <a href="https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/ann-fl-1706-1712/">Dictionary of Virginia Biography entry</a> online at Encyclopedia Virginia. Standards VS.2, VS.3, VS.4, US1.3, WHII.3, VUS.4 Suggested Questions Preveiw Activity Scan it: Scan the document for any words that stand out to you. Why do they stand out? What do they tell you? Post Activities Think About It: Imagine you are a member of the Pamunkey tribe during this time period. Develop a strategy to protect the rights of your tribal members. Looking at Language: After reading Littlepage’s petition and Spotswood’s response, what can you infer about Queen Ann’s political power? What evidence supports your claim? Form an Opinion: What do you think explains the nature of the relationship between the Pamunkey and the English colonists early in the 18th century? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Pamunkey Employment, Petition, 1711 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1711 American Indian History https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/3dbd1f35c05fa6125a0af151a9ebd97a.jpg 47fbb06880037f1143f38a784068b0c2 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/dd5c6a187be11388474d1c9d54b4eeb3.jpg d4435b709485da035477eec279e9abe8 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/18fc84a79f2ad0689b8b464135487adf.jpg 446ed8b929b9ab6494e5cc5cedb24ac0 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/c7f09c6a104787759390fe5894e011a7.pdf a32bbb1fa556e6f6e858c7ae16c52f6e https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/3685b89359963c92cc1d7a91ce65cdfc.pdf 2c2021ba87c5dfc290c6a17dd0a8b5b7 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Expansion and Reform Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1800-1860 Description An account of the resource Between 1800 and 1860, the United States underwent a period of increased territorial growth, immigration, economic growth, and industrialization. At the same time as the nation was increasing in population and size, regional differences were becoming more and more pronounced, and politically confrontational. The idea of Manifest Destiny led to expansion first across the Appalachians, then across the Mississippi, and finally to the Pacific Ocean. Vast swaths of land were aquired via the Louisiana Purchase from France and through the United States’s victory in the Mexican-American War. This expansion, however, did have some negative results, most notably the removal of many Indian nations in the Southeast and old Northwest. Economic development, while increasing wealth and prosperity, also brought regional differences more sharply into focus. Northeastern industrial development, increased urbanization, and technological advancements separated it even further from the agrarian South. There was also a transportation revolution involving railroads, canals, and trans-regional roads, many times centered in the North. The issue of slavery caused increasing strife and political debate as new western territories sought to join the Union. Despite expansion, free African Americans and women were still largely disfranchised. Reforms movements related to temperence, women's rights, education, mental health, and imprisonment occurred in bursts, setting the stage for post-Civil War major reforms. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a>. Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context After a public notice appeared in a Richmond newspaper in October 1842 that a petition would be presented to the Virginia General Assembly to sell King William County property known as "Indian town lands," members of the Pamunkey tribe took action. Three "Chief Men of the Tribe" drafted their own petitions, which were presented to the House of Delegates on January 21, 1843, the day after white King William County residents had submitted their petition for the sale of Pamunkey land. In their petition dated November 26, 1842 they argued, "we the said Tribe do hereby solemnly and positively object" to the proposal. They denied that tribal members committed criminal acts against "our white neighbor" and objected to the claim that they were lazy. They noted that they were in fact successful farmers who could also support themselves through fishing and hunting "without any expence to the country." They responded to accusations that residents were no longer Pamunkey as a result of intermarriage with free Blacks, stating that "there are many here that are more than one half blooded Indian," although not everyone residing there was a member of the tribe. The petitioners reminded the assembly members that the land had been "granted to us by your fathers the son of liberty," and expressed their desire to eventually be buried "here with our ancestors." Being forced to leave their land, the tribal leaders concluded, was "against the will and wish of each one of our Tribe." In an additional petition dated January 12, 1843, the tribal leaders pointed out that the instigator of the petition to sell their land lived elsewhere in the county, and that he had falsely convinced county residents that the Pamunkey wanted to sell their lands while also slandering the character of the Pamunkey Indians. They stressed that none of their near neighbors "who know us well" signed the petition. These two petitions submitted to the Assembly by the Pamunkey were successful. In March 1843, the House of Delegates' Committee for Courts of Justice rejected the petition to sell the land. While most Virginia Indian tribes were forced to sell their land during the 18th and 19th centuries, the Pamunkey and the Mattaponi were able to retain their property as granted by treaties with the royal government during the 17th century. Citation: Pamunkey Indians Counter Petition, Jan. 21, 1843, King William County, Legislative Petitions Digital Collection, Library of Virginia. Related Document Bank entry: <a href="https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/items/show/41">King William County Freeholders Petition for the Sale of Pamunkey Land</a> <a href="https://pamunkey.org/reservation" target="_blank" title="this external link opens in a new window." rel="noreferrer noopener">Learn more online about the Pamunkey Indian Reservation today.</a> <a href="https://www.mattaponination.com/" target="_blank" title="This external link opens in a new window." rel="noreferrer noopener">Learn more online about the Mattaponi Indian Reservation today.</a> Standards USI.8, USI.9, VUS.7 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Looking at Language: Look at the language and words used in the petition. What does it tell you about the people who wrote it? What does it tell you about the audience? Post Activity In Their Shoes: Pretend you are a reporter following this petition case. Write a story for your local readers explaining the petition and its possible outcomes. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Pamunkey Indian Tribe, Counter Petition, 1843 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1843 American Indian History Government and Civics https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/52fa15bd46fa25c653d0392f317f7fa5.jpg d82bb7e1049a5f1e4a1543a913f7c54c https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/91197fcefac6a6bfea9e88a455d96046.pdf 808c4efb7dce39dc530cc7ca03df9678 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Expansion and Reform Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1800-1860 Description An account of the resource Between 1800 and 1860, the United States underwent a period of increased territorial growth, immigration, economic growth, and industrialization. At the same time as the nation was increasing in population and size, regional differences were becoming more and more pronounced, and politically confrontational. The idea of Manifest Destiny led to expansion first across the Appalachians, then across the Mississippi, and finally to the Pacific Ocean. Vast swaths of land were aquired via the Louisiana Purchase from France and through the United States’s victory in the Mexican-American War. This expansion, however, did have some negative results, most notably the removal of many Indian nations in the Southeast and old Northwest. Economic development, while increasing wealth and prosperity, also brought regional differences more sharply into focus. Northeastern industrial development, increased urbanization, and technological advancements separated it even further from the agrarian South. There was also a transportation revolution involving railroads, canals, and trans-regional roads, many times centered in the North. The issue of slavery caused increasing strife and political debate as new western territories sought to join the Union. Despite expansion, free African Americans and women were still largely disfranchised. Reforms movements related to temperence, women's rights, education, mental health, and imprisonment occurred in bursts, setting the stage for post-Civil War major reforms. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a>. Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context Black Hawk, born in 1767 and known in his native language as Makataimeshekiakiak, was a Sauk warrior and tribal leader. The Sauk lived on the Rock River, a tributary of the Mississippi, in what is now Illinois, and fought against the United States during the War of 1812 as allies of the British. After the war American settlers pushed into Sauk land, and in the 1820s the United States government forced the Sauk and other tribes to leave their homes and move west of the Mississippi River. In 1832 the Sauk attempted to return to their home, but state militia and federal troops were mobilized against them. Sauk warriors battled the American forces in multiple skirmishes in attempts to enable the women and children to escape capture. Hundreds of Sauk were killed in what became known as Black Hawk's War, and Black Hawk surrendered in August 1832. The United States War Department sent Black Hawk and the other captured men to Fort Monroe, at Hampton, Virginia. This portrait portrays Black Hawk (center) and his eldest son, Nasheaskuk (right), as well as their longtime tribal advisor, known as the Prophet (left). The oil portrait was completed in 1833 by artist James Westhall Ford. It was one of many depictions of Black Hawk made during an enforced “tour” of major cities including Norfolk, Richmond, Philadelphia, New York, and Washington, D.C., where Black Hawk met with U.S. president Andrew Jackson. The War Department planned the tour, during which Black Hawk was required to wear non-native clothing, to demonstrate to the influential warrior the power and sheer number of his white enemies and the futility of further opposition to westward expansion. As a prominent tribal leader Black Hawk was considered central to ensuring peace on the frontier. During the mandatory tour, Black Hawk’s appearances were widely covered in the nation’s newspapers, and he was seen both as a celebrity and a curiosity. The War Department released him in August 1833. Black Hawk returned to his family and wrote an autobiography before his death in Iowa in 1838. Citation: State Art Collection, Library of Virginia Standards K.4, 2.5, 2.9, 3.1, USI.8, USI.9, VUS.7 Suggested Questions Preview Activities Look at it: Black Hawk and his son are dressed very differently in the painting, and yet there are striking similarities. Look closely at the portrait: how are the two figures alike? Different? Look at it: The tribal advisor, known as the Prophet, was influential and trusted by Black Hawk. Look at his depiction in the portrait. What can you tell from the way the Prophet is depicted? Look at it: The three figures in the portrait are not standing side by side nor are they all looking in the same direction. What do you notice about both their arrangement and their eye contact? Can you draw any conclusions from either? Post Activity Think about it: During his tour Black Hawk was considered a respected and formidable figure, and he later wrote an autobiography that became popular. To what extent is this positive reaction to Black Hawk contradictory when we consider the United States’ policies toward American Indians and westward expansion? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Portrait of Black Hawk, 1833 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1833 American Indian History https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/5c94e09d0a39891e96069b99003a3bdd.jpg e09326a354950634a90e6bccfd5ab606 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/9fb6666ca5ed186b86dd7438e34ccbb2.pdf a4d0ca98cdeced8cbdf1800cbec2eda9 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/867ec5b20723a0696ffff1dc44ae0bf4.pdf d2a5836d25a465947166f785afcf11d5 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Revolution and the New Nation Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1754-1820s Description An account of the resource The American Revolution is considered one of the most crucial times of United States history to study, as it lays the groundwork for all political history following it. Not only did it end the colonial relationship with England, but it brought about political change that shaped our lives and served as an example for other nations. It also called into question social and political relationships, raising questions regarding freedom and inalienable rights. Some of America’s most important documents and greatest political minds come from this era. The war itself also was revolutionary, with successful guerilla-style fighting and the defeat by colonials of well-trained British military forces. Following the war, the creation of the U.S. Constitution and the process of ratification shifted not only the style of government, but also the way in which governments functioned with an increased public investment. This process also called into question the balance of power between federal and state governments, an issue that continued to be present in American politics long after the Constitution and the Bill of Rights were completed. Despite strong unity among many in during the American Revolution, political, economic, regional, social, ideological, and religious tensions did not fade, and in some cases---especially with respect to slavery---increased as the United States sought to define itself. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a>. Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context John Murray, fourth earl of Dunmore, was the last royal governor of Virginia. Assuming office in September 1771, he won support during what became known as Lord Dunmore’s War in 1774. Ostensibly to protect white settlers in the Ohio Valley region claimed by Virginia, militia forces defeated a Shawnee and Wingo force at the Battle of Point Pleasant (in present-day West Virginia) in October 1774. Dunmore negotiated a treaty prohibiting the tribes from settling or hunting south of the Ohio River, thus clearing the path for expanded white colonial settlement. The impulsive Dunmore’s popularity began to wane in 1775, as he alienated key politicians. As tensions between the colony and Great Britain increased, Dunmore, citing rumors of an impending rebellion by enslaved persons, removed gunpowder from the public magazine in Williamsburg in April. Facing withering criticism from the colony's political leaders, he sent his family back to Britain, fled Williamsburg early in June, and tried to gather Loyalist supporters in Hampton Roads. On November 7, 1775, Dunmore proclaimed martial law and offered freedom to enslaved people and indentured servants who agreed to fight for the king. This offer, and his subsequent recruitment and outfitting of a regiment of Black soldiers, alienated the remaining influential planters and political leaders who until then had stayed loyal to the Crown. Thomas Jefferson included "prompting our negroes to rise in arms against us" among the grievances against the king in his draft of the constitution adopted by Virginia in June 1776. Dunmore’s proclamation prompted many enslaved persons to escape (as many as 2,000 reached the governor) and raised widespread fear of a slave rebellion. Dunmore took the offensive at the Battle of Great Bridge in December 1775, but was so soundly defeated that he ordered his ships to fire on Norfolk and his troops to burn warehouses on the wharves. In 1787 Dunmore became governor of the Bahamas, during which time he fell from royal favor. He died at his home in England in 1809. Citation: By his Excellency the Right Honorable John Earl of Dunmore . . . A Proclamation, 1775, Broadside 1775 .V852 FF, Special Collections, Library of Virginia. Related Document Bank entry <a href="https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/items/show/318">Virginia Constitution of 1776</a> <a href="https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/dunmore-john-murray-fourth-earl-of-ca-1730-1809/" target="_blank" title="this external link opens in a new window" rel="noreferrer noopener">Learn more about Lord Dunmore in his Dictionary of Virginia Biography entry online at Encyclopedia Virginia</a>. Standards VS.5, USI.6, VUS.5, GOVT.2 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Think About It: During the American Revolution who do you think enslaved Virginians might have sided with: the British or the American colonists? What advantages/disadvantages could each side offer them? Post Activity Analyze: Read the list of grievances in the Virginia Constitution of 1776 (https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/items/show/318). Draw a conclusion about the intent behind the language and its relationship to Dunmore’s Proclamation. Form An Opinion: Thomas Jefferson included this grievance in his original draft of the Declaration of Independence, but it was struck out of the final, approved copy. Develop a hypothesis explaining the reasoning of removing this charge from the final Declaration. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Lord Dunmore’s Proclamation, 1775 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1775 African American History American Indian History Government and Civics Military History https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/c37e9a2728d80cf88dcf214ee9819b6c.jpg 959dac2557a50863e77bfe6fdc3094b9 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/ba59e47b08b1903ceb05b1f55a6c29c8.pdf aea5e39315e0fa83f96fd3cf25d51dc4 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Colonization and Settlement Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1607-1763 Description An account of the resource The colonial era in American history is essential in setting the framework for all the eras to follow. Nearly two centuries of colonization on the continent and in the Caribbean provide three distinct groups to study: Europeans, indigenous peoples, and Africans brought to the colonies as enslaved persons. The varying reasons for departure from Europe set the stage for how different colonies came into being and interacted with each other. Violent conflicts, importation of disease, and dispossession of native lands were all results of Europeans’ interactions with the indigenous populations. The importation of enslaved people also led to an economic structure in some colonies that became, in their minds, reliant on the continued existence of slave labor. Government structure and political life had distinct characteristics in New England, the Mid-Atlantic, and the South as they groped their way toward mature political institutions. Economics were affected by geographic location and the local natural resources, adding to regional differences, and sometimes, divisions. Religion and politics were often influenced by the European nation who colonized the area – French, Spanish, Dutch, or English. Religion was a defining characteristic of some colonies, as opposed to the economic reasons for which others were established. Ideas of religious freedom, denominationalism, and the Great Awakening all impacted daily life. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a>. Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context Alexander Spotswood served from 1710 to 1722 as lieutenant governor of Virginia, in the place of the royal governor who never came to the colony. During his tenure Spotswood sought to improve the colony's security and economy and relations with Virginia's Indigenous people. He pressed the General Assembly to pass several important acts, including the Tobacco Inspection Act (1713) and the Indian Trade Act (1714). Under the Tobacco Inspection Act, Spotswood hoped to increase the prices that planters received for their tobacco by improving its quality. He appointed men, some of whom were members of the House of Burgesses, to well-paid positions as inspectors of tobacco before it was sent to Europe. But planters did not approve of the new policy and, with the help of English merchants, convinced the king to veto the law. To improve relations with Virginia Indians, Spotswood sought to regulate trade, but that act was also unpopular with many colonists. In 1716 Spotswood led an expedition across the Blue Ridge Mountains and into the Shenandoah Valley. He claimed the land for the King of England, and intended it to be a buffer between Indigenous peoples and white settlers who lived further east. Spotswood used land grants in the Shenandoah Valley to persuade Europeans to immigrate to Virginia, and he established a settlement of German colonists on the Piedmont region frontier that became known as Germanna. As the result of his unstable relationship with the Governor's Council and the House of Burgesses, Spotswood was replaced in 1722 by Hugh Drysdale. In addition to his political achievements, Spotswood influenced architecture. He introduced the Georgian style in his design of the Governor's Palace and when he commissioned the rebuilding of the College of William and Mary. Alexander Spotswood served as deputy postmaster general for North America from 1730 until his death in 1740. Citation: Alexander Spotswood oil on canvas painting by Charles Bridges, 1736, State Art Collection, Library of Virginia. <a href="https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/spotswood-alexander-1676-1740/" target="_blank" title="This external link opens in a new window" rel="noreferrer noopener">Learn more about Alexander Spotswood at Encyclopedia Virginia.</a> Standards K.4, 1.4, 2.8, VS.3, VS.4, USI.5, VUS.2, VUS.4 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Artistic Exploration: Look at the portrait of Alexander Spotswood. Briefly describe three things you notice about his portrait. Use the following to guide your observations: what can we infer from Spotswood's posture, his clothes, his facial expression, what he holds in his left hand, what is in the background of his portrait? Write a short paragraph describing Spotswood and what role he may have played in Virginia history. Post Activities Political Plans: Alexander Spotswood tried to improve his relationship with the House of Burgesses and the Governor's Council by passing certain acts, such as the Tobacco Inspection Act of 1713. What are other areas he could have improved to make positive changes in the lives of ordinary Virginians during this time period? Virginia Validation: In a time when colonists were becoming unhappy with British control, Alexander Spotswood attempted to appease the King. If he wanted the colonists' support, why would he conform so closely with the British government? Form an Opinion: Why do you think Spotswood wanted to appease the King, ingratiate himself to the burgesses, and impress the Governor’s Council? Keep in mind the period of time and the role Spotswood played. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Portrait of Alexander Spotswood Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1736 American Indian History Government and Civics Immigration and Migration https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/948f5839660fbc1dc4c4841632f620c8.JPG 20cac6434ea0961af2e3c4199a2b6d15 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/de14a12fd4aa3cc6a6d7b8449cc1adb5.jpeg 666b96a7bd865ef72f3381bcd307e63a https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/6352a358cd67c298aa53769b1faa4190.jpeg 296d70655d64f059385c7c5fb119f8ab https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/6991fb714de13458f6e0855b46f2e636.JPG dddc22fba1d2fd9ffb57559680b190a7 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/23d25115f9a2db32364fbe31b0e90d0a.jpeg 8ec2fba62f7af0e65829fcd1d375a696 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/669240b44aab927d12fa6b680d3e407f.pdf 5977531be6332636224327c3329ac81f Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Emergence of Modern America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1890-1930 Description An account of the resource The idea of a “Modern United States” begins with the advent of the Progressive era. The Progressive movement focused on reforms viewed as necessary after drastic increases in industrialization, immigration, and urbanization, as well as corruption in the business and political realms. Temperance reached its peak with the 18th Amendment and the decade of Prohibition, while woman suffrage became guaranteed nationally with the 19th Amendment. Other movements that gained traction on a new scale during this era were the labor movement, including the rise of unions, and the Harlem Renaissance. Shifting roles for African Americans migrating to northern cities and unprecendented immigration to America's shores heightened racial and ethnic tensions and led to the resurgence of the Ku Klux Klan. With all of the changes on the home front of America, this era also saw the emergence of the United States as a major world power. The Spanish-American War pitted the U.S. against a European power other than Great Britain for the first time. Not long after, the United States found itself embroiled in World War I, despite strong isolationist tendencies. Along with a large death toll, World War I led to the development of the failed League of Nations, ultimately pushing the United States even further into an isolationist standing that would last for decades. The immediate postwar period of the Prohibition-era “Roaring 20s” saw a domination in politics and economics by big business and its supporters, which would all come crashing down in less than a decade. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a>. Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context In 1924, Virginia's General Assembly passed the Racial Integrity Act, which was designed to stop the “intermixture” of white and Black people. The act banned interracial marriage by requiring marriage applicants to identify their race as "white," "colored," or "mixed." The law defined a white person as one “with no trace of the blood of another race.” The law did stipulate that "persons who have one-sixteenth or less of the blood of the American Indian" would be considered white, an accommodation for elite white Virginians who proudly claimed to be descendants of Pocahontas. This part of the law was overturned in 1930, when people of Indigenous and Black descent were included in the same category. As Virginia's first state registrar of vital statistics, Dr. Walter Plecker was the driving force behind the law and oversaw its enforcement. After the law was enacted, Plecker sent this Virginia Health Bulletin to all the local governments in the state. It included specific instructions for clerks who issued marriage licenses, a copy of the law itself, as well as Plecker’s views on “intermixture,” and the harm to society caused “by such abhorrent deeds.” Plecker’s focus on the separation of races was bolstered by the eugenics movement, a part of which adhered to white racial superiority over non-whites and depended on white genetic purity. He declared that “intermarriage of the white race with mixed stock must be made impossible.” He meticulously checked each birth certificate and marriage license in the state and wrote frequent letters to county clerks who failed to uphold the law to his standards. He even wrote to midwives, as in the case of in this letter in which he warned a woman against making "false statements" about the racial identity of newborn infants. Additionally, Plecker expressed his belief that people were passing as white so they could attend white schools or marry white people. Many of his letters focused on a group of families in Amherst and Rockbridge Counties, who he accused of trying to circumnavigate the law. Many of these families were of Monacan (Indigenous) descent whose ancestors had lived in the area for centuries. The Racial Integrity Act was not overturned until 1967 when the United States Supreme Court ruled in <a href="https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/loving-v-virginia-1967/">Loving v. Virginia</a> that prohibiting interracial marriage was unconstitutional. The Virginia General Assembly repealed the Racial Integrity Act along with other racially discriminatory laws in 2020. Citation: Virginia Health Bulletin, 16 (March 1924): 1-4; and W. A. Plecker to Mary Sorrels, Aug. 15, 1925, Rockbridge County Clerk’s Correspondence [Walter Plecker to A.T. Shields], 1912-1943, Library of Virginia. Related Document Bank entry: <a href="https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/items/show/168">Application for Marriage License Under the Racial Integrity Act, 1924</a> For more information about the Racial Integrity Act see the Library of Virginia's The UncommonWealth blog: <a href="https://uncommonwealth.virginiamemory.com/blog/2024/03/20/the-centennial-of-the-law-to-preserve-racial-integrity/">The Centennial of the Law to Preserve Racial Integrity</a> <a href="https://uncommonwealth.virginiamemory.com/blog/2024/07/17/racial-integrity-indigenous-tribes/">The Impact of the Act to Preserve Racial Integrity on Virginia's Indigenous Tribes</a> Standards VS.8, VS.11, USII.5, VUS.10, VUS.12, GOVT.11 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Scan It: Scan one page of the document. Identify three or four phrases or sentences that stand out. What do you think was the purpose of the act? What reaction do you think it got from the general public? Post Activity Be the Journalist: You are a journalist preparing to write a story about Dr. Walter Plecker and the lasting impact of the Racial Integrity Act on modern Virginians. How would you prepare to write your article? Who would you interview? What are three questions you would ask? Current Connections: What similarities and/or differences do you see between the struggle for interracial marriage and the fight for LGBTQIA+ marriage equality? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Virginia Health Bulletin: The New Virginia Law To Preserve Racial Integrity, March 1924 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1924 African American History American Indian History Government and Civics