2 10 224 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/2dcc811c4ed19f82ebeb5b6abaabc41c.jpg bc10e70db373cb3dee2cf0cfbbc5450c https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/44288dba46b9bc230c1a21b488611097.pdf 90d3c13236782333bc2d8b693dea4b22 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/360486cc014caa2e3db32a10406ee236.pdf ea2cb6768f1deeb553f9d3fc15a840ed Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Expansion and Reform Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1800-1860 Description An account of the resource Between 1800 and 1860, the United States underwent a period of increased territorial growth, immigration, economic growth, and industrialization. At the same time as the nation was increasing in population and size, regional differences were becoming more and more pronounced, and politically confrontational. The idea of Manifest Destiny led to expansion first across the Appalachians, then across the Mississippi, and finally to the Pacific Ocean. Vast swaths of land were aquired via the Louisiana Purchase from France and through the United States’s victory in the Mexican-American War. This expansion, however, did have some negative results, most notably the removal of many Indian nations in the Southeast and old Northwest. Economic development, while increasing wealth and prosperity, also brought regional differences more sharply into focus. Northeastern industrial development, increased urbanization, and technological advancements separated it even further from the agrarian South. There was also a transportation revolution involving railroads, canals, and trans-regional roads, many times centered in the North. The issue of slavery caused increasing strife and political debate as new western territories sought to join the Union. Despite expansion, free African Americans and women were still largely disfranchised. Reforms movements related to temperence, women's rights, education, mental health, and imprisonment occurred in bursts, setting the stage for post-Civil War major reforms. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a>. Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context In 1848, Spain ceded a vast western territory to the United States as part of the Treaty of Hidalgo that ended the Mexican-American War. This included California, home to about 6,500 Californios of Mexican descent, 700 Americans, and 150,000 Indigenous people. Just days before, gold had been discovered at Sutter’s Mill, owned by a Swiss immigrant. When word spread of the discovery, thousands began descending on the territory to seek their fortune. Immigrants first came from the western coasts of central and South America, Asia, and the Pacific Rim before word of the gold discovery reached the east coast of the United States almost a year later. This migration had a profound effect on the demographics, economy, and environment of what would become the nation’s thirty-first state. In 1849 almost 100,000 people from around the world immigrated to California, which petitioned to become a state in 1850. By 1852, California had more than 250,000 residents. The impact on the Indigenous population was devastating. More than 120,000 Indigenous people died in this period; they were either murdered over land claims, starved, or died from disease. Gold’s impact on the economy was immediate. Within a decade, miners pulled today’s equivalent of hundreds of millions of dollars of gold from the ground. Industries emerged to support mining, which enabled towns like San Francisco to become cities. Shipping boomed as provisions from the east coast poured into the ports of California, which enabled the shipbuilding industry to thrive. Discussions about building a transcontinental railroad began, although disagreements over where the route should go stymied its completion until after the Civil War. Equally immediate was the impact on the environment. At first, miners extracted gold with surface mining techniques. By the mid-1850s, however, most who had gone to California looking for gold worked for mining companies that used hydraulic power and other invasive methods to extract gold from the ground. Miners and supporting industries clear-cut forests for timber and devastated landscapes by shearing off pieces of hills and mountains and diverting water sources. Later, hydraulic and ground mining led to sediment pouring into potable rivers and streams, ruining agricultural fields. Mercury, a product used in the mining process, contaminated both the water and the land. Virginians joined the gold rush to California. This document reflects the planning process involved in migrating to the west coast. These Virginians founded a company to mine for gold in California and petitioned the General Assembly to loan them weapons to protect them while traveling and their land once they arrived. The group left Richmond in April 1849 and sailed around South America, arriving in San Francisco about five months later. Citation: Madison Mining and Trading Company, Petition, Feb. 6, 1849, Madison County, Legislative Petitions Digital Collection, Library of Virginia. Standards Social Studies: VS.6, USI.8, VUS7, VUS.10 Science: K.11, 1.8, 3.8, 4.8 Suggested Questions Pre-activity Analyze: Read the document. What are they asking for, and why? Why do you think they would ask the legislature of their home state to provide personal arms and artillery for their journey? What do you think they mean by they may face disturbances in places where “little law” was present? What do you make of their determination to borrow the arms? How do you think they plannned to return them, or pay for them? Post Activities Taking Sides: Imagine you were a legislator. How would you respond to this request, and why? They claim they were only borrowing the arms—how would you ensure payment or return of the equipment? How likely do you think the General Assembly would have been to approve this request, and why? In Their Shoes: Imagine you were planning to join the Madison Mining and Trading Company to seek your fortune as a gold hunter. What provisions do you think you would need to take? Would you prefer to take an overland or sea route to California, and why? What would you plan to do once you arrived in California? STEM Stat: Consider the properties of gold. What uses does it have? What uses do you think it would have had in the nineteenth century? Do you think the mining of gold was worth the environmental costs? Why or why not? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Madison Mining and Trading Company, Petition, 1849 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1849 Economics https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/e0d5aae3dab80d9cd920a5bacf43932b.jpg 7618c700734449f4b2abbec519b262ec https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/0cd1eb05f66fb0a4df7deac12e5498c0.pdf 2f4e1bb5f079f26e57572f4624c7e801 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Postwar United States Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1945 - 1970s Description An account of the resource The era following World War II brought about vast changes, not only in foreign policy, but in economics and a changing civic landscape. The liberalism of the New Deal era grew into movements towards increasing civil liberties and economic opportunities, particularly for underrepresented communities and women. Protests became more common as groups demanded equal rights and voting equality. These movements were juxtaposed with Jim Crow laws and the reemergence of the Ku Klux Klan. The Cold War pitted the United States and its allies in NATO against the Soviet Union and other communist nations, particularly China, Korea, and Vietnam. During this period campaigns were fought not only on the battleground, but in the political arena and social consciousness as well. The fall of the Nazi regime opened the door to the Iron Curtain and Soviet dominance of Eastern Europe. Through the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan the U.S. sought to halt the spread of communism further west. The defeat of Japan enabled previously occupied counties the chance to choose new leaders, many of whom sided with communism over capitalism. The United States would spend much of this period adhering to the “Domino Theory” foreign policy to contain the spread of communism. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a> Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context The 1896 US Supreme Court decision in Plessy v. Ferguson that established the so-called "separate but equal" doctrine gave rise to segregation laws throughout the southern United States. Often called Jim Crow laws, these laws mandated the separation of races in public facilities. Virginia’s General Assembly began passing laws to segregate public transportation in 1900. Lawmakers first targeted railroads, requiring separate cars for Black passengers by July 1900. In 1901, the General Assembly passed a law segregating steamboats. Three years later, it adopted a law to allow companies that operated streetcars or trolleys to separate passengers. Following a streetcar boycott by Black Richmonders, the Assembly approved a law in 1906 that required all trolleys to provide separate seating. In 1926, the General Assembly passed what is commonly known as the Public Assemblages Act that required racial segregation at all public events. And finally, in 1930, lawmakers segregated passengers on motorcoaches and buses. Although Black citizens protested these laws, segregation remained the law of the commonwealth until the 1960s. States employed Jim Crow laws to determine what happened inside their borders, but they could not regulate interstate commerce between the states. In 1944, Irene Morgan traveled from her mother's home in Gloucester, Virginia, to her doctor in Baltimore, Maryland, after suffering a miscarriage. She was already seated in the segregated section when the driver ordered her to move to accommodate more white passengers. Morgan refused and the bus driver had her arrested. As police tried to remove her from the bus, she tore up her arrest warrant and defended herself against physical assault. Convicted of violating the 1930 law, Morgan challenged her conviction with assistance from the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People). Although Virginia’s Supreme Court upheld Morgan’s conviction, the United States Supreme Court overturned her conviction in 1946. In their decision in Irene Morgan v. Commonwealth of Virginia, the justices posited that states could not interfere with the free movement of transport across state lines and that Virginia's law was not constitutional. However, the ruling did not provide any method for ending segregated travel, which continued in southern states until the 1960s, when the 1964 national Civil Rights Act ended legal segregation in all public accommodations. This undated broadside would have been seen on a bus operating in eastern Virginia. Citizens Rapid Transit Company provided streetcar and then bus service in the Hampton Roads area between the 1920s and 1970s. Citation: Citizens Rapid Transit Company, "Virginia state law requires all colored passengers to ride in rear of bus," no date, Broadside 19-- .C58 FF, Special Collections, Library of Virginia (<a href="https://lva.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01LVA_INST/altrmk/alma990015426500205756">available in the Library's online catalog</a>). Related Document Bank entries: <a href="https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/items/show/332">Richmond Streetcar Boycott, Newspaper Articles, 1904</a> <a href="https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/items/show/120">Washington, Alexandria, and Mount Vernon Electric Railway, Photograph, n.d.</a> For more information, <a href="https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/morgan-v-virginia-1946/">read about Morgan v. Virginia online at Encyclopedia Virginia</a>. Suggested Questions Preview Activity Scan It: Look at the words in bold. Why do you think the company highlighted those words? Post Activities Think About It: Rosa Parks is famous for her role in sparking the Montgomery Bus Boycott, but Irene Morgan is not very well known for her role in challenging segregation in public transit. Why do you think this is the case? Be the Journalist: Imagine you are a journalist writing about the decision in Morgan v. Commonwealth. What three questions would you ask Irene Morgan? Why? Standards 1.1, 2.1, 3.1, VS.11, USII.5, USII.8 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Segregation in Public Transportation, Broadside, No date Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 19-- African American History Reform Movements Women's History https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/ace3ff1d518478e080130421264623b8.jpg 63e43fa48f2a6dac83c7616e27845513 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/09ab6a8a530a599583237bb06b50909e.pdf d9f807b8df3c8edac28e3705a5d9e9ee https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/a41bca1ebda8570699fbde089121b702.pdf b894b58318512cee80393c71eb5129ca Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Revolution and the New Nation Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1754-1820s Description An account of the resource The American Revolution is considered one of the most crucial times of United States history to study, as it lays the groundwork for all political history following it. Not only did it end the colonial relationship with England, but it brought about political change that shaped our lives and served as an example for other nations. It also called into question social and political relationships, raising questions regarding freedom and inalienable rights. Some of America’s most important documents and greatest political minds come from this era. The war itself also was revolutionary, with successful guerilla-style fighting and the defeat by colonials of well-trained British military forces. Following the war, the creation of the U.S. Constitution and the process of ratification shifted not only the style of government, but also the way in which governments functioned with an increased public investment. This process also called into question the balance of power between federal and state governments, an issue that continued to be present in American politics long after the Constitution and the Bill of Rights were completed. Despite strong unity among many in during the American Revolution, political, economic, regional, social, ideological, and religious tensions did not fade, and in some cases---especially with respect to slavery---increased as the United States sought to define itself. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a>. Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context Delegates to the Constitutional Convention approved a new constitution for the United States on September 17, 1787. But before it could be adopted, nine states had to ratify the document. Despite it having the support of America's brightest statesman such as James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and George Washington, others feared that it would lead to too strong a federal government. Virginia and New York were home to many detractors. These two large wealthy states could conceivably stand alone, so their support was critical. In Virginia, even the friends of the Constitution estimated its support at no more than 50 percent of the voting population, while in New York the opposition seemed even stronger. By virtue of size, population, and wealth, New York and Virginia held virtual veto power over the ratification process. Friends of the Constitution in New York organized a campaign to increase support for the new plan of government by writing a series of newspaper essays. Alexander Hamilton, a New York lawyer who had been a delegate to the Philadelphia convention, enlisted the help of fellow lawyer John Jay. James Madison was in New York on official business at the time, and he agreed to assist Hamilton. Madison wrote about about forty percent of the essays. What is known today as the Federalist Papers is a series of eighty-five essays penned by Hamilton, Jay, and Madison between October 1787 and May 1788. They were published anonymously under the pseudonym “Publius” (a statesman who helped establish the Roman republic). Originally and primarily published in two New York state newspapers, the New York Packet and Independent Journal, the essays were reprinted by many other papers at the time. In arguing for the adoption of the Constitution, the essays explained particular provisions of the Constitution in detail. Both Hamilton and Madison claimed authorship of Federalist No. 51, although historians generally agree that Madison was mostly likely the author. In Federalist No. 51, Madison explained the need for checks and balances between the branches. Taking a pessimistic view of powerful men, he argued that balances would allow the government to govern itself, because those in charge tend to try to gain power at the expense of others. It would be the Constitution, and the people, who would keep this from happening. Coming out of the period in which the Americans fought to throw off what they considered to be Britain’s tyrannical rule, Madison’s words were designed to appeal to those who were concerned that the federal government would be too powerful. The Federalist Papers are often used today to interpret the intentions of those drafting the Constitution. Hamilton, Jay, and Madison responded to and answered questions and charges that opponents of ratification raised. These pages from Federalist No. 51 are taken from a 1788 published compilation of The Federalist held at the Library of Virginia. In a convention that met in June 1788, Virginia delegates ratified the Constitution by a vote of 89 to 79. Virginia was the tenth state to ratify and was followed by New York one month later. The Federalist Papers are often used today to interpret the intentions of those drafting the Constitution. Citation: Excerpt, No. 51 (pp. 117–119) from The Federalist: A Collection of Essays, Written in Favour of the New Constitution, as Agreed Upon by the Federal Convention, September 17, 1787 (1788), Special Collections, Library of Virginia. Standards USI.7, CE.3, VUS.6, GOVT.3 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Looking at Language: Read through this excerpt and describe Madison’s writing style. To whom do you think Madison is writing, and why? What concerns does Madison bring up about people in power? Post Activities Another Perspective: Based on this excerpt, what do you think were the main concerns of the people who may have been hesitant to support ratification of the Constitution? Why do you think they may have been worried? Consider the events leading up to the Revolution and the war itself in your answer. Analyze: Why and how does this excerpt explain the need for balances in the governmental branches? What do you think of Madison’s explanation, and why? Current Connections: Madison argued here that the government must govern itself because individuals in power often want to accrue more power for themselves. He placed his faith in the balances of power set up in the Constitution, and in the people of America to defend it. In the 21st century, how might Madison perceive our system of checks and balances? Are they functioning as he intended? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Federalist Papers, Number 51, 1788 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1788 Government and Civics https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/5c0e0119c488a38f769822d5bb3e46e6.jpg 254d7b1671d4f1add8b4a6b14b6d82d8 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/d985673f409dd37ecb80e3e3d8911bbf.pdf ab18562ea8a6d5092fad40927547f100 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/72cff44bf37b346b8c5e20c86184ec8e.pdf 17528cc6aefe04826c4659ff02fa924c Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Revolution and the New Nation Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1754-1820s Description An account of the resource The American Revolution is considered one of the most crucial times of United States history to study, as it lays the groundwork for all political history following it. Not only did it end the colonial relationship with England, but it brought about political change that shaped our lives and served as an example for other nations. It also called into question social and political relationships, raising questions regarding freedom and inalienable rights. Some of America’s most important documents and greatest political minds come from this era. The war itself also was revolutionary, with successful guerilla-style fighting and the defeat by colonials of well-trained British military forces. Following the war, the creation of the U.S. Constitution and the process of ratification shifted not only the style of government, but also the way in which governments functioned with an increased public investment. This process also called into question the balance of power between federal and state governments, an issue that continued to be present in American politics long after the Constitution and the Bill of Rights were completed. Despite strong unity among many in during the American Revolution, political, economic, regional, social, ideological, and religious tensions did not fade, and in some cases---especially with respect to slavery---increased as the United States sought to define itself. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a>. Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context Delegates to the Constitutional Convention approved a new constitution for the United States on September 17, 1787. But before it could be adopted, nine states had to ratify the document. It had the support of some of America's brightest statesman such as James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and George Washington, but others feared that it would lead to a central government with too much power. Virginia and New York were home to many detractors. If one or both of these large, wealthy states did not ratify the constitution, the United States could conceivably fail. In Virginia, even the friends of the constitution estimated its support at no more than 50 percent of the voting population (white men who owned property), while in New York the opposition seemed even stronger. Supporters of the Constitution in New York organized a campaign to sell the new plan of government by writing a series of newspaper essays to address the questions and doubts raised by opponents of ratification. Alexander Hamilton, a New York lawyer who had been a delegate to the Philadelphia convention, enlisted the help of fellow lawyer John Jay. James Madison was in New York on official business at the time, and he agreed to assist Hamilton. Madison wrote about about forty percent of the essays. What is known today as the Federalist Papers is a series of eighty-five essays penned by Hamilton, Jay, and Madison between October 1787 and May 1788. They were published anonymously under the pseudonym “Publius” (a statesman who helped establish the Roman republic). Originally and primarily published in two New York state newspapers, the New York Packet and Independent Journal, the essays were reprinted by many other papers at the time. In arguing for the adoption of the Constitution, the essays explained particular provisions of the Constitution in detail. In Federalist No. 10, Madison argued that only a republican form of government could protect against factions whose short-term interests could be detrimental to state and national government. While factions would inevitably emerge, no one faction could dominate another. Instead, he believed that factions elected by different people would have to negotiate and work together to make government function. Essentially, the dangerous nature of factions could be balanced out by the sheer number of different interests represented in government. These pages from Federalist No. 10 are taken from a 1788 published compilation of The Federalist held at the Library of Virginia. In a convention that met in June 1788, Virginia delegates ratified the Constitution by a vote of 89 to 79. Virginia was the tenth state to ratify and was followed by New York one month later. The Federalist Papers are often used today to interpret the intentions of those drafting the Constitution. Citation: Excerpt, No. 10 (p. 57-58) from The Federalist: A Collection of Essays, Written in Favour of the New Constitution, as Agreed Upon by the Federal Convention, September 17, 1787 (1788). Standards USI.7, CE.3, VUS.6, GOVT.1, GOVT.3 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Scan It: Scan the document. What do you think Madison means when he uses the word faction? What other words could you use to identify a faction? What kind of factions can you think of? Post Activities Food for Thought: This document outlines Madison's plan to structure a popularly elected government that can both protect private rights and provide public order and security. Is this realistic? Does Madison have too high of expectations for the government? Has the government lived up to Madison's expectations? Form an Opinion: Imagine you were reading this when it was published in 1787, just a few years after the end of the Revolution. Would you agree with Madison’s warnings about factions? Why or why not? What kinds of factions would you be thinking about if you were a citizen in the late eighteenth century? What factions might you fear based on your position and status in society, and why? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Federalist Papers, Number 10, 1787 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1787 Government and Civics https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/188d16b5febe5f0c120c0200052bfca5.jpg 77731acbedde910363b6fe70fc7f6886 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/6b41a502cd6862a1fa125885d8d1c50c.pdf 97b8a396c63007d57034732e5e94998f https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/59874bfa2e5757d693f86d94972b9deb.pdf d3d4c0952411ae828d445004198de2e8 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Colonization and Settlement Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1607-1763 Description An account of the resource The colonial era in American history is essential in setting the framework for all the eras to follow. Nearly two centuries of colonization on the continent and in the Caribbean provide three distinct groups to study: Europeans, indigenous peoples, and Africans brought to the colonies as enslaved persons. The varying reasons for departure from Europe set the stage for how different colonies came into being and interacted with each other. Violent conflicts, importation of disease, and dispossession of native lands were all results of Europeans’ interactions with the indigenous populations. The importation of enslaved people also led to an economic structure in some colonies that became, in their minds, reliant on the continued existence of slave labor. Government structure and political life had distinct characteristics in New England, the Mid-Atlantic, and the South as they groped their way toward mature political institutions. Economics were affected by geographic location and the local natural resources, adding to regional differences, and sometimes, divisions. Religion and politics were often influenced by the European nation who colonized the area – French, Spanish, Dutch, or English. Religion was a defining characteristic of some colonies, as opposed to the economic reasons for which others were established. Ideas of religious freedom, denominationalism, and the Great Awakening all impacted daily life. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a>. Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context English expansion into Indigenous territories led to several violent eruptions of conflict in the first decades of settlement in Virginia. A series of wars called the Anglo-Powhatan Wars ended in 1646 with the death of Opechancanough, brother of Powhatan and leader of the nation. Several Indigenous tribes signed a treaty that established the first Indigenous reservation in America, set out hunting territories for both sides, and secured English dominance by requiring allied Indigenous communities to pay an annual tribute to the crown. This treaty included the Pamunkey tribe, which had been part of the larger Powhatan confederation. The peace in eastern Virginia held for several decades, but conflict between an English planter and the Doeg tribe in 1675 spiraled into a wider war with the Susquehannock. When Governor Sir William Berkeley refused the demands of Nathaniel Bacon and others for more land and more security on the colony's frontier, Bacon led a militia to attack friendly Indigenous communities in 1676. One of these was the Pamunkey, a tributary tribe whose leader Cockacoeske was forced to retreat into Dragon Swamp after her town had been destroyed and some of her people had been killed and captured despite having agreed to provide warriors to ally with Virginia's government against the Susquehannock. Bacon's Rebellion continued throughout 1676 and pitted colonists who supported the governor against those who supported Bacon, many of whom wanted to eliminate the Indigenous tribes. Fighting continued until Governor Berkeley's forces subdued the rebellion in January 1677. King Charles II sent troops who did not arrive until afterwards, as well as commissioners to report on the conflict. In February 1677, Cockacoeske went before the Virginia Assembly to demand that Pamunkey land be returned and the Pamunkey prisoners be released. The burgesses made no response, but the royal commissioners agreed that the Pamunkey and other tributary tribes had been mistreated. The commissioners negotiated a treaty of peace on behalf of the king with Virginia tribes who had remained loyal to the colonial government. The Treaty of Middle Plantation (now the city of Williasmburg) was read aloud and signed in a public ceremony on May 29, 1677. Cockacoeske signed the treaty as "Queen of the Pamunkey" and on behalf of several tribes of the former Powhatan Confederacy. Her son John West, whose father had been the son of a colonial governor, signed as well. Three other tribal representatives, whose names are not recorded, signed the treaty, including the female leader of the Weyanoke and two male leaders of the Nottoway and Nansemond tribes. This treaty affirmed the rights delineated in the 1646 treaty but also banned English settlers from moving within three miles of Indigenous land. Tribal members had the right to take complaints to the governor, who was to treat them as Englishmen. The governor also had the right to regulate trade between the English and tribuary tribes. The tribes could appoint their own interpreters whom they trusted. The treaty required all Indigenous people who wanted to hunt or fish outside of their land to register with the magistrate of the local district first and forbade them from remaining in those areas overnight. Most of the rights bestowed in the treaty were eroded during subsequent decades, but the treaty still remains in effect. This signature page of the treaty shows Cockacoeske’s signature—the W shape at the top left. Citation: "Articles of Peace Between the Most Mighty Prince . . . Charles the Second . . . Made and Concluded at the Camp at Middle Plantation the nine and twentieth day of May (1677)," in Samuel Wiseman's Book of Record, Pepysian Library, Magdalen College, Cambridge, England (available on Virginia Colonial Records Project microfilm reel 578, Library of Virginia). <a href="https://encyclopediavirginia.org/primary-documents/articles-of-peace-1677/" target="_blank" title="link opens in a new tab" rel="noreferrer noopener">Read a transcription of the published version of the Treaty of Peace online at Encyclopedia Virginia.</a> Related Document Bank entry: <a href="https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/items/show/328">Cockacoeske, Frontlet from King Charles II, 1677</a> <a href="https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/cockacoeske-d-by-july-1-1686/" target="_blank" title="link opens in a new tab" rel="noreferrer noopener">Learn more about Cockacoeske in her Dictionary of Virginia Biography entry online at Encyclopedia Virginia.</a> Suggested Questions Preview Activity Scan It: Read the words in this page of the treaty. Which stand out to you, and why? To whom are these words directed, and why? Post Activities Think About It: Imagine you were an Indigenous person whose tribe had signed a treaty in 1646 and then faced violence during Bacon’s Rebellion. How would you have reacted to that? What would you think about your leaders signing this treaty? Be the Journalist: Imagine you were a journalist about to interview Cockacoeske. What questions would you ask her, and why? What would you expect her answers to your questions to be? Standards VS.2, US1.3, US1.5, VUS.4 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Treaty of Middle Plantation, Signature page, 1677 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1677 American Indian History Government and Civics https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/5fae42f04bd301294bda9d244dbf5770.jpg 9cba767898c9180711274e7a0f161f35 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/d863d5e5d56668e287a0d3d542d04a80.pdf f4c404eb13235cb4997a3b4f61f07ef0 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Colonization and Settlement Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1607-1763 Description An account of the resource The colonial era in American history is essential in setting the framework for all the eras to follow. Nearly two centuries of colonization on the continent and in the Caribbean provide three distinct groups to study: Europeans, indigenous peoples, and Africans brought to the colonies as enslaved persons. The varying reasons for departure from Europe set the stage for how different colonies came into being and interacted with each other. Violent conflicts, importation of disease, and dispossession of native lands were all results of Europeans’ interactions with the indigenous populations. The importation of enslaved people also led to an economic structure in some colonies that became, in their minds, reliant on the continued existence of slave labor. Government structure and political life had distinct characteristics in New England, the Mid-Atlantic, and the South as they groped their way toward mature political institutions. Economics were affected by geographic location and the local natural resources, adding to regional differences, and sometimes, divisions. Religion and politics were often influenced by the European nation who colonized the area – French, Spanish, Dutch, or English. Religion was a defining characteristic of some colonies, as opposed to the economic reasons for which others were established. Ideas of religious freedom, denominationalism, and the Great Awakening all impacted daily life. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a>. Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context Cockacoeske was a significant figure in the history of the Pamunkey tribe in Virginia. She was a descendant of Opechancanough, the brother of Powhatan, who had been the paramount chief of the Powhatan Confederacy. Cockacoeske became weroansqua, or leader, of the Pamunkey after her husband Totopotomoy died in 1656 while fighting as an ally of Virginia's government. In many Indigenous societies, women held positions of power and authority, participating in decision-making and governance alongside men. This stood in stark contrast to the roles of English women in the colony. Female leaders like Cockacoeske played crucial roles in maintaining the social, political, and cultural fabric of their communities. At the time of Cockacoeske's leadership, the Pamunkey were tributaries of the English crown. In 1676, the Virginia Assembly called Cockacoeske to appear before a committee of burgesses and Council members in Jamestown. Fighting between colonists and Indigenous tribes had intensified with Nathaniel Bacon's recent indiscriminate attacks against friends and foes, and the Assembly sought allies in the colony's war against the Susquehannock tribe. Cockacoeske attended wearing a full-length deerskin mantle (or cloak) with a woven band of beaded wampum and peake shells around her head. Described as having "a Majestick air," she addressed the audience of white men and reminded them that Pamunkey warriors had fought and died alongside them, with no compensation to the Pamunkey. She struck a deal with the council to provide a dozen men to help protect the colony against hostile frontier tribes and signed a treaty with the colony in March. During Bacon's Rebellion that summer, Nathaniel Bacon and his followers attacked the Pamunkey, killing some of Cockacoeske's people and capturing forty-five. Cockacoeske herself had to abandon all her belongings and take refuge in the Dragon Swamp, on the Middle Peninsula. There, the group she sheltered nearly starved. In February 1677, she petitioned the General Assembly to release the captives and restore Pamunkey property. The Virginia burgesses were unresponsive, but royal representatives who had been sent to quell the rebellion and investigate its origins determined that her loyalty should be rewarded. Cockacoeske's diplomatic efforts culminated in the signing of the Treaty of Middle Plantation on May 29, 1677. This treaty reunited several tribes under her authority, marking a significant achievement for her leadership. The treaty also protected her tribe’s hunting rights and granted them the right to submit complaints to the governor who was to dispense justice as though they were Englishmen. Cockacoeske led the Pamunkey until her death in 1686. Her legacy as a female leader and diplomat testifies to the strength and resilience of Indigenous Virginians during the challenges of colonial expansion. This frontlet was commissioned by King Charles II as a gift for Cockacoeske, "The Queene of Pamunkey," in recognition of her loyalty. The hammered silver is engraved with the British royal coat of arms. Citation: Frontlet, circa 1677, engraved and hammered silver, loaned for the Library of Virginia's Indigenous Perspectives exhibition by the Pamunkey Indian Museum and Cultural Center (2024). Related Document Bank entry: <a href="https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/items/show/329">Treaty of Middle Plantation, Signature page, 1677</a> Standards K.4, 1.4, 1.5, 2.5, VS.2, VS.3, VS.4, US1.3, WHII.3, VUS.4 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Take a look: Look at the silver frontlet given to Cockacoeske. What do you think this piece represents about her role as a leader and the significance of her legacy? Post Activity Food For Thought: Why do you think it is important to recognize and celebrate the contributions of female leaders in history? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Cockacoeske, Frontlet from King Charles II, 1677 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1677 American Indian History Military History https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/380ba0d057d7b2f82838cc76d0dcb773.jpg 73ff719b0464a6304c59843c7083d090 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/1c6eeeab41debc95b02e7eecd09ecc81.pdf 0f228e4d3c6d459cf5af52f14b261f53 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/15fb698acea54c9a1f797f7df5f3f920.pdf c1d48f1588429340c7cf7b802b4038ce Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Revolution and the New Nation Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1754-1820s Description An account of the resource The American Revolution is considered one of the most crucial times of United States history to study, as it lays the groundwork for all political history following it. Not only did it end the colonial relationship with England, but it brought about political change that shaped our lives and served as an example for other nations. It also called into question social and political relationships, raising questions regarding freedom and inalienable rights. Some of America’s most important documents and greatest political minds come from this era. The war itself also was revolutionary, with successful guerilla-style fighting and the defeat by colonials of well-trained British military forces. Following the war, the creation of the U.S. Constitution and the process of ratification shifted not only the style of government, but also the way in which governments functioned with an increased public investment. This process also called into question the balance of power between federal and state governments, an issue that continued to be present in American politics long after the Constitution and the Bill of Rights were completed. Despite strong unity among many in during the American Revolution, political, economic, regional, social, ideological, and religious tensions did not fade, and in some cases---especially with respect to slavery---increased as the United States sought to define itself. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a>. Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context Abraham Skipwith was the first Black man documented as a property owner in Richmond’s historic Jackson Ward district. Skipwith became a wealthy landowner after emancipating himself in the years following the American Revolution. His story illustrates how enslaved people, as property, were at the mercy of enslavers and the political and judicial systems of the state. It also shows that some enslaved people were able to succeed despite laws designed to keep them in slavery. Skipwith was enslaved by Yorktown merchant and customs official Jacqelin Ambler. From the 1770s through the Revolution, he served Ambler as Ambler achieved powerful government positions as a member of the Council of State and then as treasurer of the Commonwealth. Skipwith may have moved with Ambler to Richmond, or he may have remained behind to oversee Ambler’s business concerns. Ambler sold Skipwith to Thomas Bentley, a western trader and merchant, in 1782. Abraham Skipwith learned to read and write—how is unknown—and may well have transacted business for Bentley in Virginia. Bentley wrote a document to manumit, or free, Skipwith, but it is not known if he wanted to reward Skipwith for his service or some other reason. Bentley failed to execute the manumission papers before he died in 1785. As a result Skipwith became part of Bentley’s estate, and ended up enslaved by merchants Thomas Keene and James Warington. In 1789, Skipwith emancipated himself with a payment of £40 to Keene and Warington, a considerable sum of money. It is not known how he earned the money, but enslaved people in urban areas sometimes had the opportunity to make money outside of the hours they worked for their enslavers. Skipwith earned enough money by 1793 to purchase several lots of land in Richmond, and the following year he purchased the freedom of his wife and granddaughter. In 1793, Skipwith purchased a large tract of land in what would later be known as Jackson Ward. He built a home that is now known as one of Richmond’s oldest surviving structures (although it was moved to Goochland County in the twentieth century). He amassed wealth during his lifetime and may be the first Black Virginian to have a legally executed will. When he died in 1799, he left the land, house, a horse and buggy, a gun, and household items to his descendants. He also left money to buy the freedom of future descendants. Details about Skipwith’s life are few, but evidence suggests that he was politically connected and savvy enough to know that Virginia passed a law in 1782 that enabled owners to free their enslaved people without having to ask permission to do so from the General Assembly. He clearly took the opportunity to seek freedom, finding allies among well-connected white people who supported his efforts. In 1785, Abraham Skipwith submitted this petition to the General Assembly requesting his freedom as promised by Thomas Bentley. The petition was referred to the Committee for Courts of Justice, but his request was not granted. Skipwith also included letters from white men who attested to the fact that Bentley had planned to set Skipwith free. These documents suggest that Skipwith knew how to navigate the political system. It also shows, however, that until Abraham Skipwith earned the money to free himself, he remained legally and materially a possession because the manumission papers were never executed. Citation: Petition of Abraham, November 22, 1785, Williamsburg, Legislative Petitions of the General Assembly, 1776-1865, Accession 36121, Library of Virginia (the petition and all of the supporting documents are <a href="https://lva.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01LVA_INST/altrmk/alma9917819929405756">available online in the Legislative Petitions Digital Collection)</a>. Standards USI.5, VUS.3, GOVT.2 Suggested Questions Pre-Activity Take a look: Look at the words and phrases in the petition. What tone does the petition take? Why do you think Abraham Skipwith takes this tone? Consider what he is trying to do, and consider his audience. Post-Activities Take a Stand: Imagine that Skipwith took the estate to court to try to gain his freedom and hired you as his lawyer. How would you argue that he deserved to be manumitted? Given that two witnesses wrote in support of Bentley’s original manumission document, what questions would you ask them when you called them to the stand in support of Skipwith? Food for Thought: Bentley originally signed the manumission for Skipwith during the American Revolution. What kinds of ideas circulating during this period may have influenced both enslavers’ and enslaved people’s ideas about freedom and enslavement? Do you think it influenced Bentley and Skipwith? Why or why not? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Abraham Skipwith, Petition for Freedom, 1785 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1785 African American History https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/20db5a62123e8e232e95d8ae8ae80ad3.jpg 8e0fb797f369170a40f4b7d78c0b24b3 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/5840731850f1c8173139798280146ae8.jpg 9a538a3b4bc9608868dd8b494f908c25 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/2e2b9d03ac7d0f9f920c01d2e62f9e38.jpg 0f16037ec0de7b2786c27317c9983909 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/f8e4e270b1baf074b0b1d3681b8871cd.pdf af13f442540f842100f35e9b3360d414 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Description An account of the resource Beyond the toll it took on the nation, the Great Depression helped to shape modern-day America, especially in expanding the role of government in citizens' everyday lives. The circumstances of the Depression spurred President Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal initiatives that included the Works Progress Administration, Civilian Conservation Corps, Farm Security Administration, and the Social Security Administration to assist the unemployed, farmers, and the elderly. World War II helped not only to bring the nation out of the Depression, but also put the United States on the world stage as a superpower. Unlike previous administrations, both Roosevelt and President Harry S. Truman placed the United States on a path to leadership in worldwide conflicts and reform movements. The war changed the role of women as they entered the workforce while American men went to war. Events such as the bombing at Pearl Harbor, liberation of concentration camps, the use of atomic bombs, and the rise of the Soviet Union as a superpower shaped future American foreign policy. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a> Title A name given to the resource The Great Depression and World War II Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1929 - 1945 Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context During World War II, Black Americans took the opportunity to point out the hypocrisy of engaging in a war effort to save democracy abroad while maintaining segregation laws at home. Spurred by the national newspaper, Chicago Defender, the Black community engaged in a Double-V campaign—demanding victory for democracy abroad and at home. Black citizens volunteered and enlisted to support all aspects of the war—from Red Cross volunteer chapters to military units—despite the segregation they faced in every aspect of wartime production. After facing significant pressure from civil rights organizations and Black leaders, the U.S. military agreed to allow Black men to enlist in aviator training. The Army Auxiliary Air Force contracted with Tuskegee Institute in Alabama to create a comprehensive training center for Black airmen and support personnel as an “experiment.” This center opened in 1941 and trained about 1,000 pilots and 10,000 support personnel, including mechanics, radio operators, navigators, photographers, and other skilled technicians. The aviators formed the 99th squadron and eventually three additional squadrons that joined the 332nd Fighter Group. Some white military leaders believed that Black men did not have the intellectual capabilities to fly airplanes; the Tuskegee Airmen proved them wrong. More than 350 airmen served in Italy in active combat roles. They flew 1,578 missions in both air combat and escort roles accompanying and protecting the bomber planes over North Africa and Europe. The pilots shot down 112 enemy aircraft and earned a reputation for having the lowest loss record of any escort group. They earned several presidential citations for their excellence in combat and were in demand as escorts for Allied aircraft as well. Although these men held a distinguished record, they still faced segregation and discrimination at home. However, the heroic actions performed by the Tuskegee Airmen and other Black service men and women during World War II contributed to President Harry Truman's order to desegregate the military in 1948. Rhode Island native Ralph H. Davis earned his pilot's license by 1939 and enlisted in the Army Air Corps in November 1941. He was trained as an airplane maintenance technician and served as an instructor with the 889th Flying Squadron and 2143 AAF Base Unit. After World War II, Staff Sergeant Davis and his family settled in his wife's hometown of Staunton, Virginia. The photograph of Davis inspecting a plane during World War II accompanies his biography for the Rhode Island Aviation Hall of Fame. The remaining photographs were published in the yearbook of the Tuskegee Army Flying School. Citation: Photograph and biography of Ralph Davis and photographs published in Tuskegee Army Flying School and AAF 66th FTD Yearbook (ca. 1943), Ralph Hickman Davis Papers, 1943–2021, Accession 50284, Library of Virginia. Standards K.4, 1.1, 2.2, 2.3, USII.6, VUS.14, GOVT.2, GOVT.5 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Take a Look: Look at the photographs. What stands out to you, and why? Post-Activities Be the Journalist: Imagine you are preparing to interview Ralph Davis. What questions would you ask him, and why? Dig Deeper: Read the Document Bank entry<a href="https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/items/show/18"> “I Fought for Virginia.”</a> Think about the racial discrimination faced by men volunteering for the Tuskegee Airmen during World War II. How do you think they would have reacted to this 1942 recruitment effort, and why? How important do you think their contributions were to both the war effort itself and the greater civil rights movement? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Tuskegee Airmen in World War II, Photographs, ca. 1943 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1943 African American History Military History https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/8f66b05ad87146c90bfde792e4173cc9.jpg 7366f785ad2e44c25d9403b473cf733b https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/65e69fba60a22a383577e760faf007e3.pdf b0336c3e471c5c3dc30b7e5e4de78aee https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/97e316754a54e93a3ffc68ea0294ce65.pdf 8d5efd016ea2e52597fc186b2b0c6795 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Revolution and the New Nation Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1754-1820s Description An account of the resource The American Revolution is considered one of the most crucial times of United States history to study, as it lays the groundwork for all political history following it. Not only did it end the colonial relationship with England, but it brought about political change that shaped our lives and served as an example for other nations. It also called into question social and political relationships, raising questions regarding freedom and inalienable rights. Some of America’s most important documents and greatest political minds come from this era. The war itself also was revolutionary, with successful guerilla-style fighting and the defeat by colonials of well-trained British military forces. Following the war, the creation of the U.S. Constitution and the process of ratification shifted not only the style of government, but also the way in which governments functioned with an increased public investment. This process also called into question the balance of power between federal and state governments, an issue that continued to be present in American politics long after the Constitution and the Bill of Rights were completed. Despite strong unity among many in during the American Revolution, political, economic, regional, social, ideological, and religious tensions did not fade, and in some cases---especially with respect to slavery---increased as the United States sought to define itself. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a>. Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context The Battle of Great Bridge, fought in December 1775, was Virginia’s first large-scale battle in the American Revolution. The Virginia militia fought against British regular troops and Loyalist militia that included a unit of Black soldiers. The battle ended in a victory for the patriot troops. After the battles at Lexington and Concord, in Massachusetts, in April 1775, Virginia's royal governor removed the gunpowder stored in the magazine in Williamsburg. In June Governor Dunmore fled the capital to safety on a British battleship and led raids on several communities in Hampton Roads. The Third Virginia Convention began meeting in July and created a military for the colony's defense. This army consisted of two regiments of regulars and supplemented by militia from sixteen districts across the Commonwealth. The two regiments were led by Colonel Patrick Henry, who had called for the colony to organize its defenses at the Second Virginia Convention, and Colonel William Woodford, who had fought with George Washington during the Seven Years' War (also known as the French and Indian War). Patrick Henry resigned, and during the autumn of 1775 Colonel Woodford led the patriot troops towards Norfolk, where Dunmore's men had been raiding. The patriots mustered in Williamsburg and engaged in several skirmishes with British forces, which included enslaved men who had been armed. After a British victory at Kemp’s Landing, Governor Dunmore issued a proclamation in November 1775 declaring that men enslaved by patriots would be freed if they joined his new Ethiopian Regiment. Ultimately, the American and British forces, including the Ethiopian Regiment, squared off at Great Bridge, which crossed the southern branch of the Elizabeth River about ten miles south of Norfolk. Late in November, the Virginia militia began building defenses on the south side of the bridge while Dunmore ordered the construction of a fort on the north. After several skirmishes, the British force attacked on December 9, 1775. They found themselves slowed by missing bridge planks that had been removed by patriot sentries, including Wiliam Flora, a free Black militia private. Crossing the bridge with six men abreast, the British were an easy target for the American troops who had built entrenchments from which to fire. Patriot forces mowed down the British regulars, and Loyalist militia refused to cross the bridge to meet the same fate. The patriots forced a British retreat to Norfolk. The British suffered heavy losses—almost half of its 120-soldier regiment was killed, captured, or wounded. It also strengthened patriot resolve, and showed the potential strength of the American military, which reported only one mildly injured soldier after the battle took place. Later on December 9, Colonel Woodford wrote this letter to the president of the Third Virginia Convention and described the battle as he witnessed it. Citation: Letter of William Woodford, Dec. 9, 1775, Virginia. Convention (1775: Dec. 1-1776 Jan. 20), Accession 30003, Library of Virginia (<a href="https://lva.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01LVA_INST/altrmk/alma990016437420205756">available online in the Virginia Revolutionary Conventions Digital Collection</a>) Standards VS.5, USI.6, VUS.5 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Scan It: Look at the document. What words stand out to you, and why? What do you think of his description of the British regulars vs. the Loyalist and Ethiopian regiments? Post-Activities Be the Journalist: Imagine you are interviewing Colonel William Woodford for a story in the Virginia Gazette. What three questions would you ask him, and why? How would you write the story? What would you tell your readers about this incident, and what conclusions would you draw? Draw It: Based on Colonel William Woodford’s descriptions, draw what you think the battle map would look like. Where would American and British troops be? What would the bridge look like? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Battle of Great Bridge, William Woodford Letter, 1775 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1775 Military History https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/2d950895586e5e20d2cc5b7ff0ab6f8a.jpg 4aa3dbc09658e584d14d1bd5f10ad642 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/2273b66190fc2d06743e795ed94c407e.pdf da45fa2699a1b6a30d70d98784805121 https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/files/original/7a6ac8ed6143ea767c0d367eb18f83db.pdf e7d5730ffe60e6a3a3a0b1e5f69530ef Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Revolution and the New Nation Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1754-1820s Description An account of the resource The American Revolution is considered one of the most crucial times of United States history to study, as it lays the groundwork for all political history following it. Not only did it end the colonial relationship with England, but it brought about political change that shaped our lives and served as an example for other nations. It also called into question social and political relationships, raising questions regarding freedom and inalienable rights. Some of America’s most important documents and greatest political minds come from this era. The war itself also was revolutionary, with successful guerilla-style fighting and the defeat by colonials of well-trained British military forces. Following the war, the creation of the U.S. Constitution and the process of ratification shifted not only the style of government, but also the way in which governments functioned with an increased public investment. This process also called into question the balance of power between federal and state governments, an issue that continued to be present in American politics long after the Constitution and the Bill of Rights were completed. Despite strong unity among many in during the American Revolution, political, economic, regional, social, ideological, and religious tensions did not fade, and in some cases---especially with respect to slavery---increased as the United States sought to define itself. Learn more in the <a title="This external link will open in a new window." href="http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/history-standards/us-history-content-standards/united-states-era-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National U.S. History Content Standards</a>. Lesson Plan A resource that gives a detailed description of a course of instruction. Context In March 1775, the American colonies appeared to be on a path to war with Britain. Tensions increased over British treatment of Bostonians after Parliament passed the Coercive Acts (also known as the Intolerable Acts) in 1774. In Virginia, Governor Lord Dunmore had dissolved the House of Burgesses in January 1775 so that members could not meet to discuss recent actions. Virginia leaders called for a second convention to determine how the colony should respond to growing British aggression. A previous convention had met in August 1774 and had established a non-importation agreement to stop buying British goods. The Second Virginia Convention met from March 20 to March 27, 1775, in what is now known as St. John's Church, in Richmond. The elected delegates focused particularly on the fact that Dunmore had allowed a law mustering the militia to expire at a time when conflicts between the colonists and Indigenous peoples on Virginia's western frontier were escalating. A proposal from men in Fairfax County had recommended assembling the local militia and raising money for ammunition, something that only British-authorized legislative bodies had previously proposed. Hanover County delegate Patrick Henry presented a resolution to muster the militia for the colony's defense. While not going so far as proposing to raise taxes to fund this effort, his formal request to the convention was a step towards governance without British oversight. Many present worried that this was a step too far, and a vigorous debate over Henry’s resolution ensued. On March 23, Patrick Henry defended his call to arms with a dramatic speech to the convention, whose members included George Washington, Richard Henry Lee, and Thomas Jefferson. Henry argued that the British government had failed to respond satisfactorily to American petitions and requests over the previous decade and that it was time to face the truth that the time for reconciliation with the mother country had potentially passed. He emphasized that the standing British military troops in the colonies, with more on the way, did not bode well for peace. He closed with the famous words “I know not what course others may take; but as for me, give me liberty or give me death!” The convention passed Henry’s resolution by a narrow margin. Not even a month later, the first shots in the American Revolution were fired at Lexington in Massachusetts. Early in May, Henry marched on Williamsburg with his militia to demand the return of gunpowder Dunmore had taken from the magazine. Patrick Henry’s speech has been often repeated and memorialized, but it was not recorded at the time of the convention or during his lifetime. Instead, William Wirt reconstructed the speech in his 1817 biography of Henry. Wirt included the transcription by St. George Tucker, who had related the speech to Wirt in an 1805 letter that has since been lost. By all accounts, Wirt was a careful researcher who tried to corroborate his material. He may have consulted others who had been present, such as Edmund Randolph, who had a strong positive reaction to the speech but did not at the time record Henry’s words. Thomas Jefferson also read a copy of Wirt’s biography and presumably may have called out any inaccuracies. Patrick Henry's exact words remain unknown on that fateful day when the Virginia convention determined to arm the commonwealth in defense against potential British aggression. His actions, however, helped to chart Virginia’s revolutionary course, and these words have become ingrained in American popular history and culture. Citation: Excerpt from March 23, 1775, speech in William Wirt, Sketches of the Life and Character of Patrick Henry, 2d ed. (1818), pp. 122─123, Special Collections, Library of Virginia. Related Document Bank entries: <a href="https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/items/show/315">Call for a Convention to Meet in Williamsburg, 1774</a> <a href="https://www.lva.virginia.gov/collections/educator-resources/dbva/items/show/314">Proclamation Against Patrick Henry, 1775</a> <a href="https://www.historicstjohnschurch.org/2nd-virginia-convention" target="_blank" title="this link opens in a new tab" rel="noreferrer noopener">Learn more about the Second Virginia Convention at St. John's Church</a>. <a href="https://lva.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/discovery/collectionDiscovery?vid=01LVA_INST:01LVA&collectionId=81164609780005756&lang=en">See records from the Virginia Revolutionary Conventions, 1774─1776</a> in our Digital Collections Discovery. <a href="https://uncommonwealth.lva.virginia.gov//blog/2024/02/07/virginia-revolutionary-conventions/">Learn more about these records</a> in The UncommonWealth blog. <a href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027/loc.ark:/13960/t1hh6z54x?urlappend=%3Bseq=141" target="_blank" title="this link opens in a new tab" rel="noreferrer noopener">Read Henry's entire speech</a> in the Sketches of the Life and Character of Patrick Henry (pp. 119-123) online at HathiTrust. Standards VS.6, USI.6, VUS.5 Suggested Questions Preview Activity Analyze: Read through the speech. What reasons does Henry give for his argument that Virginia needed to arm itself against the British? How does he try to persuade delegates who were reluctant to go this far? Post-Activities Dig Deeper: Read the Document Bank entry of the <a href="https://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/items/show/314">Proclamation of Dunmore against Patrick Henry</a>. Given what actions Henry took before and after the Second Virginia Convention, do you believe he said these famous words in this speech? Why or why not, and what evidence supports/disputes the claim that he made the speech? Political Plans: Imagine you are a politician who disagrees with Henry’s arguments. How would you try to convince others to vote against creating an independent Virginia militia? Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Give Me Liberty or Give Me Death, Patrick Henry Speech, 1775 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1775 Government and Civics